ArticleScience (New York, N.Y.)2021
mRNA vaccines induce durable immune memory to SARS-CoV-2 and variants of concern.
Open access · bronzeAbstract read
In one paragraph
Article in Science (New York, N.Y.), 2021. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 634 papers, 2 of them syntheses that pooled it.
0numbers the graph read from it
0cells of the map it votes in
634citing papers in PubMed, 2 pooled it
50.9field-weighted citation impact, top 1% of its field
What it found
Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.
The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
The trial behind it
Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.
Who cites it
634 citing papers in PubMed, 2 syntheses or guidelines pooled it, 916 citations in OpenAlex.
- Effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 infection and severe outcomes in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of European studies published up to 22 January 2024.European respiratory review : an official journal of the European Respiratory Society · 2025Pooled it
- Recent advances on coxsackievirus A6 vaccine research.Frontiers in immunology · 2025Pooled it
- Safety and Immunogenicity of aerosolized adenovirus-vectored COVID-19 vaccine and intramuscular mRNA vaccine bivalent boosters: a randomized open-label clinical trial.Nature communications · 2025Trial
- Safety and Immunogenicity of mRNA-1010, an Investigational Seasonal Influenza Vaccine, in Healthy Adults: Final Results From a Phase 1/2 Randomized Trial.The Journal of infectious diseases · 2025Trial
- Longitudinal analysis of immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 recombinant vaccine S-268019-b in phase 1/2 prime-boost study.Frontiers in immunology · 2025Trial
- Self-amplifying RNA (saRNA) and circular RNA (circRNA) vaccines: Progress, evidence gaps, and translational pathways for durable and scalable immunization.Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics · 2026Review
- Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor as a Fifth Component of Lipid Nanoparticles Enables Lymph Node-Targeting and Augments mRNA Vaccine Efficacy.Advanced science (Weinheim, Baden-Wurttemberg, Germany) · 2026Article
- Potent type-specific de novo antibodies complement broadly reactive imprinted antibodies in immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 variants.Nature immunology · 2026Article
- Serum Escape Landscape of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron JN.1 and XEC RBD Under COVID-19 Vaccine Breakthrough Immunity in China.Microorganisms · 2026Article
- Maternal Antibody Interference and Hybrid Immune Responses to COVID-19 Vaccination in Young Children.Research square · 2026Article
- Bacterial mRNA Vaccines: Programming Immunity Against Antimicrobial Resistance.Drug development research · 2026Review
- Temporal Association Between COVID-19 Vaccination and HBsAg Loss in Chronic Hepatitis B Infection: An Interrupted Time Series Analysis.Alimentary pharmacology & therapeutics · 2026Article
- SARS-CoV-2 mRNA Vaccination Induces Reduced T-Cell Apoptosis in Patients with Solid Tumors.International journal of molecular sciences · 2026Article
- Evaluating Memory B Cell Cross-Reactivity Between Ancestral and Future SARS-CoV-2 Variants-Evidence for Original Antigenic Sin.Vaccines · 2026Article
- Mechanisms Underlying the Induction of Immunological Imprinting by RNA Viruses and Intervention Strategies.Viruses · 2026Review
- A low-dose self-amplifying mRNA vaccine encoding HPV16 E6/E7 induces potent T-cell immunity and antitumor protection in mice.Cancer immunology, immunotherapy : CII · 2026Article
- Clade 2.3.4.4b H5N1 influenza virus and SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence among owned and feral cats in Philadelphia and surrounding communities.bioRxiv : the preprint server for biology · 2026Article
- Human Organoids as a Novel Tool for Vaccine Study.Advanced healthcare materials · 2026Review
- Cytokine Profiles in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells and Neutrophils following SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination: A Study from Kuwait.Medical principles and practice : international journal of the Kuwait University, Health Science Centre · 2026Article
- First exposure to SARS-CoV-2 shapes IgG subclass switching after mRNA vaccination.Communications medicine · 2026Article
574 more citing papers are in PubMed but not listed here.
Corrections and comments
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Authors and funding
47 authors at 5 institutions in 2 countries.
Rishi R Goel *Institute for Immunology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0003-1715-5191
Mark M Painter *Institute for Immunology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0002-0180-2748
Sokratis A Apostolidis *Institute for Immunology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0002-0224-0097
Divij Mathew *Institute for Immunology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0002-8323-7358
Wenzhao MengInstitute for Immunology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0002-8040-7825
Aaron M RosenfeldInstitute for Immunology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0002-2266-0355
Kendall A LundgreenDepartment of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0003-2431-7152
Arnold ReynaldiKirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia.ORCID 0000-0002-5529-5542
David S KhouryKirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
Ajinkya PattekarImmune Health, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0002-1416-1230
Sigrid GoumaDepartment of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0002-7853-8340
Leticia Kuri-CervantesInstitute for Immunology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0002-2432-9500
Philip HicksDepartment of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0002-1574-5692
Sarah DysingerDepartment of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0003-0687-0018
Amanda HicksImmune Health, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0002-3496-1745
Harsh SharmaImmune Health, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0003-2905-0266
Sarah HerringImmune Health, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0001-5685-0854
Scott KorteImmune Health, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0003-0214-3374
Amy E BaxterInstitute for Immunology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0002-1555-0713
Derek A OldridgeInstitute for Immunology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0003-2177-5633
Josephine R GilesInstitute for Immunology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0002-3713-338X
Madison E WeirickDepartment of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0003-2112-8102
Christopher M McAllisterDepartment of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0002-0011-4089
Moses AwofolajuDepartment of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0002-9281-6036
Nicole TanenbaumDepartment of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0003-0626-2821
Elizabeth M DrapeauDepartment of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0002-8243-6478
Jeanette DoughertyInstitute for Immunology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0001-9400-6240
Sherea LongInstitute for Immunology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0002-8508-8333
Kurt D'AndreaInstitute for Immunology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0001-7005-3800
Jacob T HamiltonImmune Health, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0003-1277-6925
Maura McLaughlinInstitute for Immunology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
Justine C WilliamsImmune Health, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0001-8552-6447
Sharon AdamskiImmune Health, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0001-5933-5292
Oliva KuthuruInstitute for Immunology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0002-9435-9764
UPenn COVID Processing Unit‡
Ian FrankDivision of Infectious Disease, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0002-7824-0106
Michael R BettsInstitute for Immunology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0002-7690-1484
Laura A VellaDivision of Infectious Disease, Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0002-8917-4845
Alba GrifoniCenter for Infectious Disease and Vaccine Research, La Jolla Institute for Immunology (LJI), La Jolla, CA, USA.ORCID 0000-0002-2209-5966
Daniela WeiskopfCenter for Infectious Disease and Vaccine Research, La Jolla Institute for Immunology (LJI), La Jolla, CA, USA.ORCID 0000-0003-2968-7371
Alessandro SetteCenter for Infectious Disease and Vaccine Research, La Jolla Institute for Immunology (LJI), La Jolla, CA, USA.ORCID 0000-0001-7013-2250
Scott E HensleyDepartment of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0002-2928-7506
Miles P DavenportKirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia.ORCID 0000-0002-4751-1831
Paul BatesDepartment of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0002-3918-5976
Eline T Luning PrakInstitute for Immunology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0002-9478-9211
Allison R GreenplateInstitute for Immunology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0002-2614-3072
E John WherryInstitute for Immunology, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.ORCID 0000-0003-0477-1956
University of Pennsylvania · USLa Jolla Institute for Immunology · USUNSW Sydney · AUParker Institute for Cancer Immunotherapy · USChildren's Hospital of Philadelphia · US
Funding
Virus & Reservoirs CoreP30AI045008 · NIAID · UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA · PI ROBERT GROSS · 1999 to 2026
$78.6MVirology CoreU19AI082630 · NIAID · MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL HOSPITAL · PI RAYMOND T CHUNG, GEORG Michael LAUER · 2009 to 2026
$48.1MSynergies among inhibitory receptors in tolerance, cancer & antiviral immunityP01AI108545 · NIAID · UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH AT PITTSBURGH · PI E. John Wherry · 2015 to 2026
$30.8MIMMUNOBIOLOGY OF NORMAL AND NEOPLASTIC LYMPHOCYTEST32CA009140 · NCI · UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA · PI Malay Haldar, WARREN S PEAR · 1985 to 2026
$16.1MModeling HIV CAR-T cell trafficking and persistence in Non-Human PrimatesU19AI149680 · NIAID · UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA · PI RILEY, JAMES L. · 2020 to 2024
$13.2MTraining in Emerging Infectious DiseasesT32AI055400 · NIAID · UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA · PI CHERRY, SARA, HENSLEY, SCOTT ERIC · 2003 to 2022
$4.4MVMD-PhD Training in Infectious Disease-Related ResearchT32AI070077 · NIAID · UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA · PI Michael Lee Atchison · 2008 to 2026
$3.5MDevelopment of vaccines targeting a tick-borne phlebovirusR01AI152236 · NIAID · UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA · PI BATES, PAUL · 2020 to 2024
$3.0MTemporal control of differentiation and epigenetics of Exhausted CD8 T cells by ToxR01AI155577 · NIAID · UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA · PI WHERRY, E. JOHN · 2020 to 2024
$2.7MTraining Program/Rheumatic DiseasesT32AR076951 · NIAMS · UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA · PI EDWARD M BEHRENS, Peter A Merkel · 2020 to 2026
$2.6MCellular and transcriptional control of exhausted CD8 T cells lineage dynamicsR01AI105343 · NIAID · UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA · PI WHERRY, E. JOHN · 2014 to 2017
$1.6MThe Penn-StARR Program for Research in ResidencyR38HL143613 · NHLBI · UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA · PI KLEIN, PETER S · 2018 to 2021
$1.4MNCI NIH HHS T32 CA009140NHLBI NIH HHS R38 HL143613NIAID NIH HHS P01 AI108545NIAID NIH HHS P30 AI045008NIAID NIH HHS R01 AI105343NIAID NIH HHS R01 AI152236NIAID NIH HHS R01 AI155577NIAID NIH HHS R21 AI142638NIAID NIH HHS T32 AI055400NIAID NIH HHS T32 AI070077NIAID NIH HHS U19 AI082630NIAID NIH HHS U19 AI149680NIAMS NIH HHS T32 AR076951
Abstract
The durability of immune memory after severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccination remains unclear. In this study, we longitudinally profiled vaccine responses in SARS-CoV-2–naïve and –recovered individuals for 6 months after vaccination. Antibodies declined from peak levels but remained detectable in most subjects at 6 months. By contrast, mRNA vaccines generated functional memory B cells that increased from 3 to 6 months postvaccination, with the majority of these cells cross-binding the Alpha, Beta, and Delta variants. mRNA vaccination further induced antigen-specific CD4
Indexed as
Immunologic MemoryCOVID-19 VaccinesHumansmRNA VaccinesSARS-CoV-2COVID-19 VaccinesmRNA Vaccines
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