Environmental microplastic and nanoplastic: Exposure routes and effects on coagulation and the cardiovascular system.

Plastic pollution has been a growing concern in recent decades due to the proliferation and ease of manufacturing of single use plastic products and inadequate waste and recycling management. Microplastic, and even smaller nanoplastic, particles are persistent pollutants in aquatic and terrestrial systems and are the subject of active and urgent research. This review will explore the current research on how exposure to plastic particles occurs and the risks associated from different exposure routes: ingestion, inhalation, and dermal exposure. The effects of microplastics on the cardiovascular system are of particular importance due to its sensitivity and ability to transport particles to other organ systems. The effects of microplastics and nanoplastics on the heart, platelet aggregation, and thrombus formation will all be explored with focus on how the particle characteristics modulate their effect. Plastic particle interactions are highly dependent on both their size and their surface chemistry and interesting research is being done with the interaction of particle characteristics and effect on thrombosis and the cardiovascular system. There is significant uncertainty surrounding some of the findings in this field as research in this area is still maturing. There are undoubtedly more physiological consequences than we are currently aware of resulting from environmental plastic exposure and more studies need to be conducted to reveal the full extent of pathologies caused by the various routes of microplastic exposure, with particular emphasis on longitudinal exposure effects. Further research will allow us to recognize the full extent of physiological impact and begin developing viable solutions to reduce plastic pollution and potentially design interventions to mitigate in-vivo plastic effects following significant or prolonged exposure.