Assessing heavy metal contamination in soils using improved weighted index (IWI) and their associated human health risks in urban, wetland, and agricultural soils.

Contamination of nine heavy metals (HMs) Zn, Pb, Cu, Cd, As, Co, Cr, Mo, and Ni in agricultural, urban, and wetland soils from Western and Rift Valley parts of Kenya was assessed using improved weighted index (IWI) and pollution loading index (PLI). Non-carcinogenic risks posed by the HMs were assessed using hazard quotients (HQ) and hazard index (HI), while carcinogenic risks were assessed using cancer risks (CR) and total cancer risks (TCR). The average concentration of Zn, Cr, Ni, Pb, Co, Cu, As, Mo, and Cd was 94.7 mg/kg, 43.6 mg/kg, 22.3 mg/kg, 21.0 mg/kg, 19.8 mg/kg, 18.0 mg/kg, 16.3 mg/kg, 1.83 mg/kg, and 1.16 mg/kg, respectively. IWI ranged from 0.57 to 6.04 and categorized 6.82% of the study sites as not polluted, 27.3% as slightly polluted, 43.2% as moderately polluted, and 22.7% as seriously polluted. PLI ranged from 0.38 to 3.95 and classified 15.9% of the sites as not polluted, 61.4% as slightly polluted, 20.5% as moderately polluted, and only 2.3% as seriously polluted. Wetlands retained more HMs from both urban and agricultural runoff and were therefore the most polluted. The heavy metals did not pose any risks via inhalation and dermal contact, but HQingestion for As for children was >1 in 2.3% of the sites studied. CR via ingestion and TCR for As were above the allowable limits for children and adults indicating high risks of cancer. Intensive agriculture and urbanization should be closely monitored to prevent further HM pollution.