ReviewEuropean journal of applied physiology2021
Physiology, pathophysiology and (mal)adaptations to chronic apnoeic training: a state-of-the-art review.
Review in European journal of applied physiology, 2021. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 31 papers, 2 of them syntheses that pooled it.
What it found
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The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
The trial behind it
Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
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Who cites it
31 citing papers in PubMed, 2 syntheses or guidelines pooled it, 56 citations in OpenAlex.
- Physio-metabolic and clinical consequences of wearing face masks-Systematic review with meta-analysis and comprehensive evaluation.Frontiers in public health · 2023Pooled it
- Effects of apnoea training on aerobic and anaerobic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis.Frontiers in physiology · 2022Pooled it
- Acute and chronic application of novel incremental breath-hold technique increases endurance exercise performance in healthy men and male military personnel.Physiological reports · 2026Article
- Interindividual variability in static apnoea performance is partly explained by genetic factors.Experimental physiology · 2026Article
- The effects of breath holding during high-intensity land-based ergometry in swimmers.Physiological reports · 2026Article
- Carboxyhemoglobin tracks acute arterial desaturation in healthy volunteers: a pooled analysis of four controlled desaturation studies.Scientific reports · 2026Article
- Return to an extreme environment exposure after pulmonary infection: SCUBA diving as a model?Physiological reports · 2026Article
- Cumulative oxidative and inflammatory responses to repeated depth training in breath-hold divers: a multiparametric field study.European journal of applied physiology · 2026Article
- Aquaticity as a Latent Dimension of Aquatic Performance: Conceptual Framework and Application to Breath-Hold Diving.Journal of functional morphology and kinesiology · 2026Article
- Advances in breath-hold diving research: a state-of-the-art review.European journal of applied physiology · 2026Review
- A century of anti-G straining maneuvers. Are there further changes in AGSM physical training that can improve +Gz tolerance? A scoping review.Frontiers in physiology · 2026Review
- The application of breath-holding in sports: physiological effects, challenges, and future directions.European journal of applied physiology · 2025Review
- Trends in competitive freediving accidents.Diving and hyperbaric medicine · 2024Article
- On the mechanisms of stress-induced human spleen contraction: training for a higher blood oxygen-carrying capacity.European journal of applied physiology · 2024Review
- A dive into the physiological responses to maximal apneas, OEuropean journal of applied physiology · 2024Article
- Cardiorespiratory and muscle oxygenation responses to voluntary hypoventilation at low lung volume in upper body repeated sprints.European journal of applied physiology · 2024Article
- Skill building in freediving as an example of embodied culture.Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences · 2024Article
- Effects of hyperventilation on repeated breath-holding while in a fasting state: do risks outweigh the benefits?American journal of physiology. Regulatory, integrative and comparative physiology · 2024Article
- Breath-holding as model for the evaluation of EEG signal during respiratory distress.European journal of applied physiology · 2024Review
- Unlocking the depths: multiple factors contribute to risk for hypoxic blackout during deep freediving.European journal of applied physiology · 2023Article
Corrections and comments
PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.
Authors and funding
4 authors at 3 institutions in 3 countries.
Funding
No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.
Abstract
Breath-hold diving is an activity that humans have engaged in since antiquity to forage for resources, provide sustenance and to support military campaigns. In modern times, breath-hold diving continues to gain popularity and recognition as both a competitive and recreational sport. The continued progression of world records is somewhat remarkable, particularly given the extreme hypoxaemic and hypercapnic conditions, and hydrostatic pressures these athletes endure. However, there is abundant literature to suggest a large inter-individual variation in the apnoeic capabilities that is thus far not fully understood. In this review, we explore developments in apnoea physiology and delineate the traits and mechanisms that potentially underpin this variation. In addition, we sought to highlight the physiological (mal)adaptations associated with consistent breath-hold training. Breath-hold divers (BHDs) are evidenced to exhibit a more pronounced diving-response than non-divers, while elite BHDs (EBHDs) also display beneficial adaptations in both blood and skeletal muscle. Importantly, these physiological characteristics are documented to be primarily influenced by training-induced stimuli. BHDs are exposed to unique physiological and environmental stressors, and as such possess an ability to withstand acute cerebrovascular and neuronal strains. Whether these characteristics are also a result of training-induced adaptations or genetic predisposition is less certain. Although the long-term effects of regular breath-hold diving activity are yet to be holistically established, preliminary evidence has posed considerations for cognitive, neurological, renal and bone health in BHDs. These areas should be explored further in longitudinal studies to more confidently ascertain the long-term health implications of extreme breath-holding activity.
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Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.