Diagnosis of Patellofemoral Pain Syndrome Based on a Multi-Input Convolutional Neural Network With Data Augmentation.

Patellofemoral pain syndrome (PFPS) is a common disease of the knee. Despite its high incidence rate, its specific cause remains unclear. The artificial neural network model can be used for computer-aided diagnosis. Traditional diagnostic methods usually only consider a single factor. However, PFPS involves different biomechanical characteristics of the lower limbs. Thus, multiple biomechanical characteristics must be considered in the neural network model. The data distribution between different characteristic dimensions is different. Thus, preprocessing is necessary to make the different characteristic dimensions comparable. However, a general rule to follow in the selection of biomechanical data preprocessing methods is lacking, and different preprocessing methods have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, this paper proposes a multi-input convolutional neural network (MI-CNN) method that uses two input channels to mine the information of lower limb biomechanical data from two mainstream data preprocessing methods (standardization and normalization) to diagnose PFPS. Data were augmented by horizontally flipping the multi-dimensional time-series signal to prevent network overfitting and improve model accuracy. The proposed method was tested on the walking and running datasets of 41 subjects (26 patients with PFPS and 15 pain-free controls). Three joint angles of the lower limbs and surface electromyography signals of seven muscles around the knee joint were used as input. MI-CNN was used to automatically extract features to classify patients with PFPS and pain-free controls. Compared with the traditional single-input convolutional neural network (SI-CNN) model and previous methods, the proposed MI-CNN method achieved a higher detection sensitivity of 97.6%, a specificity of 76.0%, and an accuracy of 89.0% on the running dataset. The accuracy of SI-CNN in the running dataset was about 82.5%. The results prove that combining the appropriate neural network model and biomechanical analysis can establish an accurate, convenient, and real-time auxiliary diagnosis system for PFPS to prevent misdiagnosis.