ReviewNeural plasticity2021
The Current Evidence Levels for Biofeedback and Neurofeedback Interventions in Treating Depression: A Narrative Review.
Review in Neural plasticity, 2021. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 16 papers, 2 of them syntheses that pooled it.
What it found
Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.
The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
The trial behind it
Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.
Who cites it
16 citing papers in PubMed, 2 syntheses or guidelines pooled it.
- Analyzing metaverse-based digital therapies, their effectiveness, and potential risks in mental healthcare.Scientific reports · 2025Pooled it
- Mapping the evolution of neurofeedback research: a bibliometric analysis of trends and future directions.Frontiers in human neuroscience · 2024Pooled it
- Neurofeedback in Major Depression.Advances in experimental medicine and biology · 2026Review
- Mapping EEG Metrics to Human Affective and Cognitive Models: An Interdisciplinary Scoping Review from a Cognitive Neuroscience Perspective.Biomimetics (Basel, Switzerland) · 2025Review
- Effectiveness of fMRI-based Neurofeedback Therapy on Depression: A Systematic Review.Clinical psychopharmacology and neuroscience : the official scientific journal of the Korean College of Neuropsychopharmacology · 2025Review
- Reinforcement learning processes as forecasters of depression remission.Journal of affective disorders · 2025Article
- Acoustic therapy for allergic rhinitis and chronic rhinosinusitis: modulating microbiome, immunity and well-being.Frontiers in allergy · 2025Review
- Evaluating the effectiveness of integrating biofeedback in the treatment of aggressive outbursts (BRET-IA2): A study protocol.PloS one · 2025Article
- Decoded EEG neurofeedback-guided cognitive reappraisal training for emotion regulation.Cognitive neurodynamics · 2024Article
- Study of electronic biofeedback combined with nursing intervention in the treatment of vascular cognitive impairment-no dementia.Acta neurologica Belgica · 2024Article
- Multimodal and hemispheric graph-theoretical brain network predictors of learning efficacy for frontal alpha asymmetry neurofeedback.Cognitive neurodynamics · 2024Article
- Infra-Low-Frequency Neurofeedback Treatment in Dysthymia: A Case Study.Behavioral sciences (Basel, Switzerland) · 2023Article
- An Open-Source, Interoperable Architecture for Generating Real-Time Surgical Team Cognitive Alerts from Heart-Rate Variability Monitoring.Sensors (Basel, Switzerland) · 2023Article
- Affective Neurofeedback Under Naturalistic Conditions: A Mini-Review of Current Achievements and Open Challenges.Frontiers in neuroergonomics · 2021Review
- fMRI Neurofeedback-Enhanced Cognitive Reappraisal Training in Depression: A Double-Blind Comparison of Left and Right vlPFC Regulation.Frontiers in psychiatry · 2021Article
- Effects of Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation and Neurofeedback on Alpha (EEG) Dynamics: A Review.Frontiers in human neuroscience · 2021Review
Corrections and comments
PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.
Authors and funding
1 author.
Funding
No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.
Abstract
This article is aimed at showing the current level of evidence for the usage of biofeedback and neurofeedback to treat depression along with a detailed review of the studies in the field and a discussion of rationale for utilizing each protocol. La Vaque et al. criteria endorsed by the Association for Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback and International Society for Neuroregulation & Research were accepted as a means of study evaluation. Heart rate variability (HRV) biofeedback was found to be moderately supportable as a treatment of MDD while outcome measure was a subjective questionnaire like Beck Depression Inventory (level 3/5, "probably efficacious"). Electroencephalographic (EEG) neurofeedback protocols, namely, alpha-theta, alpha, and sensorimotor rhythm upregulation, all qualify for level 2/5, "possibly efficacious." Frontal alpha asymmetry protocol also received limited evidence of effect in depression (level 2/5, "possibly efficacious"). Finally, the two most influential real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging (rt-fMRI) neurofeedback protocols targeting the amygdala and the frontal cortices both demonstrate some effectiveness, though lack replications (level 2/5, "possibly efficacious"). Thus, neurofeedback specifically targeting depression is moderately supported by existing studies (all fit level 2/5, "possibly efficacious"). The greatest complication preventing certain protocols from reaching higher evidence levels is a relatively high number of uncontrolled studies and an absence of accurate replications arising from the heterogeneity in protocol details, course lengths, measures of improvement, control conditions, and sample characteristics.
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Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.