Observational studyJournal of medical Internet research2021
Infection Control Behavior at Home During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Observational Study of a Web-Based Behavioral Intervention (Germ Defence).
Observational study in Journal of medical Internet research, 2021. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 16 papers, 1 of them a synthesis that pooled it.
What it found
Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.
The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
The trial behind it
Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.
Who cites it
16 citing papers in PubMed, 1 synthesis or guideline pooled it, 37 citations in OpenAlex.
- Pooled it
- Nasal sprays and a behavioural intervention for respiratory tract infections in primary care: 12-month follow-up of a randomised open-label trial.The British journal of general practice : the journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners · 2026Trial
- Implementing Germ Defence digital behaviour change intervention via all primary care practices in England to reduce respiratory infections during the COVID-19 pandemic: an efficient cluster randomised controlled trial using the OpenSAFELY platform.Implementation science : IS · 2023Trial
- Promoting Hand Hygiene During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Parallel Randomized Trial for the Optimization of the Soapp App.JMIR mHealth and uHealth · 2023Trial
- A Web-Based Intervention (Germ Defence) to Increase Handwashing During a Pandemic: Process Evaluations of a Randomized Controlled Trial and Public Dissemination.Journal of medical Internet research · 2021Trial
- A digital intervention to protect cognitive health in older adults with cognitive impairment: a three-arm, open-label, randomised controlled trial.The Lancet. Primary care · 2026Article
- Article
- Adapting the Germ Defence Web-Based Intervention to Improve Infection Prevention and Control in Care Homes: Interview Study Among Care Home Staff.JMIR formative research · 2025Article
- Effectiveness of communications in enhancing adherence to public health behavioural interventions: a COVID-19 evidence review.Philosophical transactions. Series A, Mathematical, physical, and engineering sciences · 2023Review
- How public health authorities can use pathogen genomics in health protection practice: a consensus-building Delphi study conducted in the United Kingdom.Microbial genomics · 2023Article
- Applying machine-learning to rapidly analyze large qualitative text datasets to inform the COVID-19 pandemic response: comparing human and machine-assisted topic analysis techniques.Frontiers in public health · 2023Article
- Infection control behaviours, intra-household transmission and quarantine duration: a retrospective cohort analysis of COVID-19 cases.Australian and New Zealand journal of public health · 2022Article
- The Rapid Adaptation and Optimisation of a Digital Behaviour-Change Intervention to Reduce the Spread of COVID-19 in Schools.International journal of environmental research and public health · 2022Article
- Context-specific adaptation of an eHealth-facilitated, integrated care model and tailoring its implementation strategies-A mixed-methods study as a part of the SMILe implementation science project.Frontiers in health services · 2022Article
- Article
- Adapting Behavioral Interventions for a Changing Public Health Context: A Worked Example of Implementing a Digital Intervention During a Global Pandemic Using Rapid Optimisation Methods.Frontiers in public health · 2021Article
Corrections and comments
PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.
Authors and funding
17 authors at 6 institutions in 1 country.
Funding
Abstract
backgroundTo control the COVID-19 pandemic, people should adopt protective behaviors at home (self-isolation, social distancing, putting shopping and packages aside, wearing face coverings, cleaning and disinfecting, and handwashing). There is currently limited support to help individuals conduct these behaviors.
objectiveThis study aims to report current household infection control behaviors in the United Kingdom and examine how they might be improved.
methodsThis was a pragmatic cross-sectional observational study of anonymous participant data from Germ Defence between May 6-24, 2020. Germ Defence is an open-access fully automated website providing behavioral advice for infection control within households. A total of 28,285 users sought advice from four website pathways based on household status (advice to protect themselves generally, to protect others if the user was showing symptoms, to protect themselves if household members were showing symptoms, and to protect a household member who is at high risk). Users reported current infection control behaviors within the home and intentions to change these behaviors.
resultsCurrent behaviors varied across all infection control measures but were between sometimes (face covering: mean 1.61, SD 1.19; social distancing: mean 2.40, SD 1.22; isolating: mean 2.78, SD 1.29; putting packages and shopping aside: mean 2.75, SD 1.55) and quite often (cleaning and disinfecting: mean 3.17, SD 1.18), except for handwashing (very often: mean 4.00, SD 1.03). Behaviors were similar regardless of the website pathway used. After using Germ Defence, users recorded intentions to improve infection control behavior across all website pathways and for all behaviors (overall average infection control score mean difference 0.30, 95% CI 0.29-0.31).
conclusionsSelf-reported infection control behaviors other than handwashing are lower than is optimal for infection prevention, although handwashing is much higher. Advice using behavior change techniques in Germ Defence led to intentions to improve these behaviors. Promoting Germ Defence within national and local public health and primary care guidance could reduce COVID-19 transmission.
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What OpenQuestion holds
Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.