Sesamoids in Caudata and Gymnophiona (Lissamphibia): absences and evidence.

An integrative definition of sesamoid bones has been recently proposed, highlighting their relationship with tendons and ligaments, their genetic origin, the influence of epigenetic stimuli on their development, and their variable tissue composition. Sesamoid bones occur mainly associated with a large number of mobile joints in vertebrates, most commonly in the postcranium. Here, we present a survey of the distribution pattern of sesamoids in 256 taxa of Caudata and Gymnophiona and 24 taxa of temnospondyls and lepospondyls, based on dissections, high-resolution X-ray computed tomography from digital databases and literature data. These groups have a pivotal role in the interpretation of the evolution of sesamoids in Lissamphibia and tetrapods in general. Our main goals were: (1) to contribute to the knowledge of the comparative anatomy of sesamoids in Lissamphibia; (2) to assess the evolutionary history of selected sesamoids. We formally studied the evolution of the observed sesamoids by optimizing them in the most accepted phylogeny of the group. We identified only three bony or cartilaginous sesamoids in Caudata: the mandibular sesamoid, which is adjacent to the jaw articulation; one located on the mandibular symphysis; and one located in the posterior end of the maxilla. We did not observe any cartilaginous or osseous sesamoid in Gymnophiona. Mapping analyses of the sesamoid dataset of urodeles onto the phylogeny revealed that the very conspicuous sesamoid in the mandibular symphysis of