ArticlePublic health nutrition2022
Consumption of breast milk, formula and other non-human milk by children aged under 2 years: analysis of eighty-six low- and middle-income countries.
Article in Public health nutrition, 2022. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 21 papers, 1 of them a synthesis that pooled it.
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Who cites it
21 citing papers in PubMed, 1 synthesis or guideline pooled it, 27 citations in OpenAlex.
- Liquid Cow's Milk Consumption and Linear Growth Outcomes in Infancy and Childhood: A Systematic Review.Nutrients · 2026Pooled it
- Evaluation of a complex intervention: the Latch On randomized controlled trial of multicomponent breastfeeding support for women with a raised body mass index.Journal of public health (Oxford, England) · 2025Trial
- Breastfeeding and risk of maternal type 2 diabetes: a prospective cohort study of 280 000 women in China.BMJ open · 2026Article
- The association between early-life nutrition and palatine tonsil grading in preschool children: a cross-sectional study.Frontiers in nutrition · 2026Article
- How stable isotopes can advance nutrition assessments to inform sustainable food systems.The British journal of nutrition · 2025Review
- Implementation of the International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes and maternity protection: correlations with commercial milk formula consumption in East Asia and the Pacific.Frontiers in pediatrics · 2025Article
- Socioeconomic pattern of breastfeeding in sub-Saharan Africa: an individual participant data meta-analysis of six longitudinal cohorts.BMJ public health · 2025Article
- Role of Human Milk Microbiota in Infant Neurodevelopment: Mechanisms and Clinical Implications.Children (Basel, Switzerland) · 2024Review
- Dietary diversity and associated factors among infants and young children in three West African countries.Frontiers in public health · 2024Article
- Individual- and system-level determinants of breastfeeding in a low-resource setting.Frontiers in public health · 2024Review
- Differences in Breastfeeding Duration by Maternal HIV Status: A Pooled Analysis of Nationally Representative Surveys in Sub-Saharan Africa.Journal of acquired immune deficiency syndromes (1999) · 2024Article
- Time trends and social inequalities in infant and young child feeding practices: national estimates from Brazil's Food and Nutrition Surveillance System, 2008-2019.Public health nutrition · 2023Article
- Microbial Production of Human Milk Oligosaccharides.Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) · 2023Review
- Healthcare professionals and commercial milk formula recommendations in the urban Mexican context.Frontiers in public health · 2023Article
- Prevalence of Essential Nutrient Supplement Use and Assessment of the Knowledge and Attitudes of Lebanese Mothers towards Dietary Supplement Practices in Maternal, Infancy and Preschool Ages: Findings of a National Representative Cross-Sectional Study.Foods (Basel, Switzerland) · 2022Article
- Correlates of Sub-Optimal Feeding Practices among under-5 Children amid Escalating Crises in Lebanon: A National Representative Cross-Sectional Study.Children (Basel, Switzerland) · 2022Article
- Baby food industry interference with infant feeding international regulation-A case study on the standard for follow-up formula.Frontiers in public health · 2022Article
- Exclusive Breastfeeding and Factors Influencing Its Abandonment During the 1st Month Postpartum Among Women From Semi-rural Communities in Southeast Mexico.Frontiers in pediatrics · 2022Article
- Breastfeeding, first-food systems and corporate power: a case study on the market and political practices of the transnational baby food industry and public health resistance in the Philippines.Globalization and health · 2021Article
- Rates and time trends in the consumption of breastmilk, formula, and animal milk by children younger than 2 years from 2000 to 2019: analysis of 113 countries.The Lancet. Child & adolescent health · 2021Article
Corrections and comments
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Authors and funding
9 authors at 4 institutions in 4 countries.
Funding
Abstract
objectiveTo investigate the prevalence and socio-economic inequalities in breast milk, breast milk substitutes (BMS) and other non-human milk consumption, by children under 2 years in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC).
designWe analysed the prevalence of continued breast-feeding at 1 and 2 years and frequency of formula and other non-human milk consumption by age in months. Indicators were estimated through 24-h dietary recall. Absolute and relative wealth indicators were used to describe within- and between-country socio-economic inequalities.
settingNationally representative surveys from 2010 onwards from eighty-six LMIC.
participants394 977 children aged under 2 years.
resultsBreast-feeding declined sharply as children became older in all LMIC, especially in upper-middle-income countries. BMS consumption peaked at 6 months of age in low/lower-middle-income countries and at around 12 months in upper-middle-income countries. Irrespective of country, BMS consumption was higher in children from wealthier families, and breast-feeding in children from poorer families. Multilevel linear regression analysis showed that BMS consumption was positively associated with absolute income, and breast-feeding negatively associated. Findings for other non-human milk consumption were less straightforward. Unmeasured factors at country level explained a substantial proportion of overall variability in BMS consumption and breast-feeding.
conclusionsBreast-feeding falls sharply as children become older, especially in wealthier families in upper-middle-income countries; this same group also consumes more BMS at any age. Country-level factors play an important role in explaining BMS consumption by all family wealth groups, suggesting that BMS marketing at national level might be partly responsible for the observed differences.
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Registered trials
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