ArticleAnnals of epidemiology2021
Black and unarmed: statistical interaction between age, perceived mental illness, and geographic region among males fatally shot by police using case-only design.
Article in Annals of epidemiology, 2021. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 8 papers.
What it found
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The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
The trial behind it
Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
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Who cites it
8 citing papers in PubMed, 29 citations in OpenAlex.
- Mental and behavioral health characteristics among individuals injuriously shot by police in the United States.Journal of mental health (Abingdon, England) · 2026Article
- Responding to crisis: the intersection of police officer attitudes, organizational climate, and mental health crises.BMC public health · 2025Article
- Neighborhood-level fatal police violence and severe maternal morbidity in California.American journal of epidemiology · 2024Article
- Systemic Racism in Police Killings: New Evidence from the Mapping Police Violence Database, 2013-2021.Race and justice · 2024Article
- National Burden of Injury and Deaths From Shootings by Police in the United States, 2015‒2020.American journal of public health · 2024Article
- Experiences of Black Adults Evaluated in a Locked Psychiatric Emergency Unit: A Qualitative Study.Psychiatric services (Washington, D.C.) · 2023Article
- Self-injury and the embodiment of solitary confinement among adult men in Louisiana prisons.SSM - population health · 2023Article
- US law enforcement policy predictors of race-specific police fatalities during 2015-16.PloS one · 2021Article
Corrections and comments
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Authors and funding
3 authors at 2 institutions in 1 country.
Funding
Abstract
purposeWe examine whether the race and armed status interact to modify the risk of being fatally shot by police within categories of civilian age and mental illness status, and U.S. region.
methodsData are from The Washington Post online public-use database of all U.S. police-involved shooting deaths. The sample includes black and white males with known armed status who were killed from 1/1/2015 through 12/31/2019 (n = 3090). A case-only design is used to assess multiplicative interaction using adjusted logistic regression.
resultsThe fully adjusted interaction estimate is null (S
conclusionThe race and armed status may interact leaving black males at a higher risk of being unarmed than white males when fatally shot by police among those older than 54 years, mentally impaired, and residing in the South. Causal interaction suggests a lower risk for unarmed blacks in the Midwest. Researchers should further explore the utility of the case-only design to study social-environmental interaction.
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Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.