ArticlePloS one2020
The intersectional effect of poverty, home ownership, and racial/ethnic composition on mean childhood blood lead levels in Milwaukee County neighborhoods.
Article in PloS one, 2020. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 14 papers.
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Who cites it
14 citing papers in PubMed.
- Metals in tap water across child care and home environments: association between lead and early childhood executive function.Journal of exposure science & environmental epidemiology · 2026Article
- A multiple-methods exploration of the "school-to-suicide pipeline".BMC public health · 2026Article
- Historical Redlining and Racial Disparities in Child Blood Lead Levels in Southeastern Wisconsin.Journal of racial and ethnic health disparities · 2026Article
- Article
- Racial Composition of Past and Current Social Environments and Health Literacy.Health literacy research and practice · 2024Article
- Artificial neural network approaches to identify maternal and infant risk and asset factors using Peridata.Net: a WI-MIOS study.JAMIA open · 2023Article
- The association between lead exposure and crime: A systematic review.PLOS global public health · 2023Article
- Assessing the effect of four types of direct mail messages to promote the uptake of residential lead remediation funds.Public health in practice (Oxford, England) · 2022Article
- A Generalizable Evaluated Approach, Applying Advanced Geospatial Statistical Methods, to Identify High Lead Exposure Locations at Census Tract Scale: Michigan Case Study.Environmental health perspectives · 2022Article
- Higher R2* in the Red Nucleus Is Associated With Lead Exposure in an Asymptomatic Welder Cohort.Toxicological sciences : an official journal of the Society of Toxicology · 2022Article
- Geodemographic insights on the COVID-19 pandemic in the State of Wisconsin and the role of risky facilities.GeoJournal · 2022Article
- Lead Pollution, Demographics, and Environmental Health Risks: The Case of Philadelphia, USA.International journal of environmental research and public health · 2021Article
- COVID-19 and children's health in the United States: Consideration of physical and social environments during the pandemic.Environmental research · 2021Review
- Early-life lead exposure and neurodevelopmental disorders.Current opinion in toxicology · 2021Article
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Authors and funding
2 authors.
Funding
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Abstract
Environmental conditions that contribute to childhood lead exposure are spatially patterned. Socioeconomic and racial inequities in childhood lead exposure have been well documented, however childhood lead exposure in Milwaukee is understudied. As a segregated rustbelt metropolitan area with childhood lead exposure concerns, Milwaukee is uniquely positioned to evaluate the synergistic effects of racial and economic drivers of childhood lead exposure. Using surveillance data from the Wisconsin Department of Health Services, Division of Public Health and the US Census Bureau, this cross-sectional study determined the intersectional effect of poverty, home ownership, and racial/ethnic composition on childhood lead exposure in Milwaukee County neighborhoods using linear regression adjusting for average census tract housing age and number of children. The final analytical sample consisted of 48,393 individual childhood blood lead levels aggregated to 215 Milwaukee County census tracts. Census tracts with mean childhood blood lead levels greater than or equal to 5 μg/dL were predominantly low home ownership, high poverty, and majority non-White census tracts. The effects of low home ownership, high poverty, and majority non-White census tracts were synergistic, producing 1.78 (95% CI: 1.44, 2.11) μg/dL higher mean childhood blood lead level than high home ownership, low poverty, and majority White census tracts (referent). This research reveals that social determinants at the neighborhood level co-occur and interact to produce inequities in childhood lead exposure. Lead prevention efforts should align with equity-focused housing and economic policies that target primary prevention in neighborhoods disproportionately burdened by childhood lead exposure.
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