Foliar application of lead and arsenic solutions to Spinacia oleracea: biophysiochemical analysis and risk assessment.

Atmospheric contamination by heavy metal(loid)s is a widespread global issue. Recent studies have shown foliar pathway of heavy metal(loid) uptake by plants, thus menacing plant productivity and threatening health risks. In contrast to root uptake of heavy metal(loid)s, there is scarce data available on heavy metal(loid) foliar uptake, accumulation in different plant parts, changes in growth and other biophysiochemical processes/reactions, detoxification mechanisms and associated health risks due to the consumption of contaminated vegetables. This study evaluated the effect of foliar application of two potentially toxic metal(loid)s (arsenic (As) and lead (Pb)) on their uptake by Spinacia oleracea, plant growth, pigment contents, physiological changes, and activation of antioxidative enzymes. Results revealed that S. oleracea seedlings can accumulate both the metal(loid)s in their leaves via foliar pathway. Arsenic was transferred from the leaves towards the roots, while Pb was mainly sequestered in S. oleracea leaves. Both the metal(loid)s significantly decreased plant growth and pigment contents, As being more toxic than Pb. Foliar application of As and Pb did not cause lipid peroxidation and overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS). However, both the metal(loid)s enhanced the activities of antioxidative enzymes. We also calculated possible health risks (both non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic) due to As and Pb accumulation in the edible parts for both the adults and children. It was observed that As can induce non-carcinogenic effects (HQ > 1) in children only, while both As and Pb can cause carcinogenic hazards in both adults and children under their all applied foliar levels. Therefore, it is proposed that As and Pb contents in the atmosphere must be monitored continuously for their possible foliar uptake and accumulation in edible plant parts to avoid cancer risks. Moreover, multivariate analysis traced weak-strong correlations between metal(loid) treatments and plant response variables.