Scorpion envenomation: state of the art.

Scorpion envenomation is common in the tropical and subtropical regions. It poses a major public health problem with some patients having serious clinical manifestations and severe complications including death. Old World and New World scorpions are usually contrasted because of differences in venom composition, clinical presentation and severity, and, accordingly, different therapeutic approaches. The majority of scorpion stings are either dry or result in low amounts of injected venom, thus explaining why up to 95% of scorpion stings ensue only in local signs. For a clinical envenomation to occur, it has been suggested that the interaction between the quantity of venom introduced in the body of the prey and the distribution volume should ensue in a critical threshold of scorpion toxin plasma concentration. In this case, there is a massive release of neurohormonal mediators (mainly catecholamine), with systemic vasoconstrictor effects eliciting a sharp increase in systemic arterial pressure and LV-filling pressure and decreased cardiac output. This early phase of cardiac dysfunction, also called "vascular phase", is followed by a severe cardiomyopathy, a form of Takotsubo cardiomyopathy, involving both ventricles and reversible in days to weeks. The more comprehensive understanding of the disease pathophysiology has allowed for a well-codified symptomatic treatment, thus contributing to a substantial reduction in the death toll of scorpion envenomation over the past few decades. The standard intensive-care treatment (when available) overcomes envenomation's consequences such as acute pulmonary edema and cardiogenic shock. Even though it continues to inspire many evaluative studies, immunotherapy seems less attractive because of the major role held by mediators in the pathogenesis of envenomation, and unfavorable pharmacokinetic properties to existing sera compared to venom. Meta-analyses of controlled trials of immunotherapy in severe scorpion envenomation reached similar conclusions: there is an acceptable level of evidence in favor of the use of scorpion antivenom (Fab'