ReviewBMC ophthalmology2020
A review on the epidemiology of myopia in school children worldwide.
Review in BMC ophthalmology, 2020. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. It is linked to trial NCT05007626 (Association of Axial Length and Refraction With Near Horizontal Heterophoria in Chinese Children), which is not on this map. Cited by 265 papers, 7 of them syntheses that pooled it.
What it found
Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.
The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
The trial behind it
Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
Association of Axial Length and Refraction With Near Horizontal Heterophoria in Chinese Children
Who cites it
265 citing papers in PubMed, 7 syntheses or guidelines pooled it, 488 citations in OpenAlex.
- Association of physical activity, sedentary behaviour, sleep and myopia in children and adolescents: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis.BMC public health · 2025Pooled it
- Interventions for myopia control in children: a living systematic review and network meta-analysis.The Cochrane database of systematic reviews · 2025Pooled it
- Benefits and risks of orthokeratology treatment: a systematic review and meta-analysis.International ophthalmology · 2024Pooled it
- Low-level red-light therapy for myopia control in children: A systematic review and meta-analysis.Clinics (Sao Paulo, Brazil) · 2024Pooled it
- Correlation between refractive errors and ocular biometric parameters in children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis.BMC ophthalmology · 2023Pooled it
- Effectiveness of myopia control interventions: A systematic review of 12 randomized control trials published between 2019 and 2021.Frontiers in public health · 2023Pooled it
- Regional variations and temporal trends of childhood myopia prevalence in Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis.Ophthalmic & physiological optics : the journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians (Optometrists) · 2022Pooled it
- Violet light-transmitting intraocular lens increases choroidal thickness: 1-year prospective, randomised controlled trial.BMJ open ophthalmology · 2025Trial
- Defocus Incorporated Multiple Segments (DIMS) spectacle lenses versus 0.01% atropine for myopia control: a randomised trial in children from Central Europe.BMJ open ophthalmology · 2025Trial
- Clinical evaluation of MyoCare in Europe (CEME) for myopia management: One-year results.Ophthalmic & physiological optics : the journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians (Optometrists) · 2025Trial
- Clinical observation and correlation between the different degrees of myopia and choroidal thickness in children and adolescents.Medicine · 2026Article
- Axial Length to Corneal Curvature Ratio is Insufficient for Detecting Pseudomyopia in Children: A Multi-Cohort Study.Ophthalmic & physiological optics : the journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians (Optometrists) · 2026Article
- Relationships of Body Composition with Refractive Error and Axial Length in 8-Year-Old Japanese Children.Journal of clinical medicine · 2026Article
- Two-Year Efficacy of Cylindrical Annular Refractive Elements Spectacle Lenses for Myopia Control in European Children.Ophthalmology science · 2026Article
- Exploring Characteristics and Systemic Health Links in Myopic Australian Adults.Ophthalmic & physiological optics : the journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians (Optometrists) · 2026Article
- Global research trends of myopia in children and adolescents: A bibliometric review with hotspot visualization.Medicine · 2026Review
- Retrospective Comparative Analysis of Myopia Control Efficacy: Orthokeratology, Defocus-Incorporated Soft Contact Lenses and Their Combination with 0.01% Atropine in Chinese Children and Adolescents.Ophthalmic & physiological optics : the journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians (Optometrists) · 2026Article
- Dynamic relationship between axial length and crystalline lens during myopic refractive development in children: a 5-year cohort study.Eye (London, England) · 2026Article
- Pattern of association between school grades and myopia: longitudinal findings from the SCORM cohort.Eye (London, England) · 2026Article
- Ocular biometry in isolated versus disease-associated high myopia in children and adolescents: A retrospective observational study.Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology = Albrecht von Graefes Archiv fur klinische und experimentelle Ophthalmologie · 2026Article
205 more citing papers are in PubMed but not listed here.
Corrections and comments
PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.
Authors and funding
5 authors at 4 institutions in 4 countries.
Funding
No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.
Abstract
backgroundDue to high prevalence myopia has gained importance in epidemiological studies. Children with early onset are at particular risk of complications associated with myopia, as progression over time might result in high myopia and myopic macular degeneration. Both genetic and environmental factors play a role in the increasing prevalence of myopia. The aim of this study is to review the current literature on epidemiology and risk factors for myopia in school children (aged 6-19 years) around the world. MAIN BODY: PubMed and Medline were searched for the following keywords: prevalence, incidence, myopia, refractive error, risk factors, children and visual impairment. English language articles published between Jan 2013 and Mar 2019 were included in the study. Studies were critically reviewed for study methodology and robustness of data. Eighty studies were included in this literature review. Myopia prevalence remains higher in Asia (60%) compared with Europe (40%) using cycloplegic refraction examinations. Studies reporting on non-cycloplegic measurements show exceptionally high myopia prevalence rates in school children in East Asia (73%), and high rates in North America (42%). Low prevalence under 10% was described in African and South American children. In recent studies, risk factors for myopia in schoolchildren included low outdoor time and near work, dim light exposure, the use of LED lamps for homework, low sleeping hours, reading distance less than 25 cm and living in an urban environment.
conclusionLow levels of outdoor activity and near work are well-established risk factors for myopia; this review provides evidence on additional environmental risk factors. New epidemiological studies should be carried out on implementation of public health strategies to tackle and avoid myopia. As the myopia prevalence rates in non-cycloplegic studies are overestimated, we recommend considering only cycloplegic measurements.
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Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.