ArticleAmerican journal of epidemiology2018
Origins of the 1918 Pandemic: Revisiting the Swine "Mixing Vessel" Hypothesis.
Article in American journal of epidemiology, 2018. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 31 papers.
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The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
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Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
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Who cites it
31 citing papers in PubMed, 49 citations in OpenAlex.
- Molecular Epidemiology and Evolution of Swine Influenza A Viruses, Vietnam, 2020-2024.Emerging infectious diseases · 2026Article
- Human-Origin Influenza A(H3N2) Viruses Revealed in Swine Farms During the Period 2022-2025 in Kazakhstan.Animals : an open access journal from MDPI · 2026Article
- Childhood immune imprinting shapes cohort and period influenza mortality.Science advances · 2026Article
- Review
- Cases of Interspecies Transmission of Influenza A Virus from Swine to Humans.Veterinary sciences · 2025Review
- Trends in seroprevalence of influenza A virus infections in pigs in France (2008-2022).Porcine health management · 2025Article
- An ancient influenza genome from Switzerland allows deeper insights into host adaptation during the 1918 flu pandemic in Europe.BMC biology · 2025Article
- The global burden of swine influenza and its mitigation.Open veterinary journal · 2025Review
- Review
- Major change in swine influenza virus diversity in France owing to emergence and widespread dissemination of a newly introduced H1N2 1C genotype in 2020.Virus evolution · 2025Article
- Parallel single B cell transcriptomics to elucidate pig B cell repertoire.Scientific reports · 2024Article
- Article
- Farm management practices associated with influenza A virus contamination of people working in Midwestern United States swine farms.Porcine health management · 2023Article
- Does Avian Coronavirus Co-Circulate with Avian Paramyxovirus and Avian Influenza Virus in Wild Ducks in Siberia?Viruses · 2023Article
- Article
- Simultaneous co-infection with swine influenza A and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome viruses potentiates adaptive immune responses.Frontiers in immunology · 2023Article
- Are pigs overestimated as a source of zoonotic influenza viruses?Porcine health management · 2022Review
- Influenza A in Wild Boars: Viral Circulation in the Emilia-Romagna Region (Northern Italy) between 2017 and 2022.Animals : an open access journal from MDPI · 2022Article
- Review
- Discovery of Novel Herpes Simplexviruses in Wild Gorillas, Bonobos, and Chimpanzees Supports Zoonotic Origin of HSV-2.Molecular biology and evolution · 2021Article
Corrections and comments
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Authors and funding
2 authors at 2 institutions in 1 country.
Funding
Abstract
How influenza A viruses host-jump from animal reservoir species to humans, which can initiate global pandemics, is a central question in pathogen evolution. The zoonotic and spatial origins of the influenza virus associated with the "Spanish flu" pandemic of 1918 have been debated for decades. Outbreaks of respiratory disease in US swine occurred concurrently with disease in humans, raising the possibility that the 1918 virus originated in pigs. Swine also were proposed as "mixing vessel" intermediary hosts between birds and humans during the 1957 Asian and 1968 Hong Kong pandemics. Swine have presented an attractive explanation for how avian viruses overcome the substantial evolutionary barriers presented by different cellular environments in humans and birds. However, key assumptions underpinning the swine mixing-vessel model of pandemic emergence have been challenged in light of new evidence. Increased surveillance in swine has revealed that human-to-swine transmission actually occurs far more frequently than the reverse, and there is no empirical evidence that swine played a role in the emergence of human influenza in 1918, 1957, or 1968. Swine-to-human transmission occurs periodically and can trigger pandemics, as in 2009. But swine are not necessary to mediate the establishment of avian viruses in humans, which invites new perspectives on the evolutionary processes underlying pandemic emergence.
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Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.