ArticleInternational journal of epidemiology2019
Exploring causality of the association between smoking and Parkinson's disease.
Article in International journal of epidemiology, 2019. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 75 papers, 3 of them syntheses that pooled it.
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Who cites it
75 citing papers in PubMed, 3 syntheses or guidelines pooled it.
- Association Between β-Adrenoreceptor Agonists and Antagonists and Parkinson's Disease: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.Pharmacoepidemiology and drug safety · 2025Pooled it
- Pooled it
- Parkinson's Disease Risk and Alcohol Intake: A Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Prospective Studies.Frontiers in nutrition · 2021Pooled it
- Blood-based biomarkers of Alzheimer's disease and olfactory decline over 15 years in older adults.GeroScience · 2026Article
- Interaction Between Cigarette Smoking and PARK16 on Parkinson's Disease.International journal of molecular sciences · 2026Article
- Risk of Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders Following Parkinson's Disease: A Nationwide Population-Based Cohort Study.Psychiatry investigation · 2026Article
- EPIC4ND-European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition follow-up for neurodegenerative diseases.European journal of epidemiology · 2026Article
- Global regional and national burden and trends of early-onset Parkinson's disease from 1990 to 2021.NPJ Parkinson's disease · 2026Article
- Exercise and smoking: health rivals revealing shared protective mechanisms in Parkinson's?NPJ Parkinson's disease · 2026Review
- Long-Term Exposure to Air Pollution and Incidence of Parkinson's Disease: A Danish Nationwide Administrative Cohort Study.Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society · 2026Article
- Sex-Specific Patterns of Taste Dysfunction, Their Relationships with α-Synuclein Profiling, and Supervised Learning-Based Diagnosis in Parkinson's Disease (PD).International journal of molecular sciences · 2026Article
- Genetic and Proteomic Investigation of the Smoking-Parkinson's Disease Association.medRxiv : the preprint server for health sciences · 2026Article
- Smoking and the risk of neurodegenerative diseases in a Chinese case-control study.BMJ neurology open · 2026Article
- A review of the evidence for a protective role of uric acid in Parkinson's disease.NPJ Parkinson's disease · 2025Review
- Parkinson Disease and the Gut: A Primer for Gastroenterologists.The American journal of gastroenterology · 2025Review
- GSDME-N-induced mitochondrial neurotoxicity in early neurodegeneration was suppressed by nicotine via enhancing autophagic flux.Journal of translational medicine · 2025Article
- Neuroprotective effects of chemical constituents from Nicotiana tabacum L. in Parkinson's disease.Natural products and bioprospecting · 2025Article
- Midlife Vascular Risk Factors, Parkinson Disease, and Parkinson Disease-Dementia: The ARIC Study.Neurology · 2025Article
- Mortality and causes of death in patients with Parkinson's disease in Taiwan.Journal of Parkinson's disease · 2025Article
- Healthy lifestyle habits, educational attainment, and the risk of 45 age-related health and mortality outcomes in the UK: A prospective cohort study.The journal of nutrition, health & aging · 2025Article
15 more citing papers are in PubMed but not listed here.
Corrections and comments
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Authors and funding
30 authors.
Funding
Abstract
backgroundThe aim of this paper is to investigate the causality of the inverse association between cigarette smoking and Parkinson's disease (PD). The main suggested alternatives include a delaying effect of smoking, reverse causality or an unmeasured confounding related to a low-risk-taking personality trait.
methodsA total of 715 incident PD cases were ascertained in a cohort of 220 494 individuals from NeuroEPIC4PD, a prospective European population-based cohort study including 13 centres in eight countries. Smoking habits were recorded at recruitment. We analysed smoking status, duration, and intensity and exposure to passive smoking in relation to PD onset.
resultsFormer smokers had a 20% decreased risk and current smokers a halved risk of developing PD compared with never smokers. Strong dose-response relationships with smoking intensity and duration were found. Hazard ratios (HRs) for smoking <20 years were 0.84 [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.67-1.07], 20-29 years 0.73 (95% CI 0.56-0.96) and >30 years 0.54 (95% CI 0.43-0.36) compared with never smokers. The proportional hazard assumption was verified, showing no change of risk over time, arguing against a delaying effect. Reverse causality was disproved by the consistency of dose-response relationships among former and current smokers. The inverse association between passive smoking and PD, HR 0.70 (95% CI 0.49-0.99) ruled out the effect of unmeasured confounding.
conclusionsThese results are highly suggestive of a true causal link between smoking and PD, although it is not clear which is the chemical compound in cigarette smoking responsible for the biological effect.
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Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.