ArticleOptometry and vision science : official publication of the American Academy of Optometry2018
Ocular Component Development during Infancy and Early Childhood.
Article in Optometry and vision science : official publication of the American Academy of Optometry, 2018. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 68 papers.
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Who cites it
68 citing papers in PubMed.
- Axial length targets for myopia control.Ophthalmic & physiological optics : the journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians (Optometrists) · 2021Trial
- Kindergarten type, preschool educational environment, and screening-defined myopia in Japanese preschool children.Japanese journal of ophthalmology · 2026Article
- Ocular Component Growth From the Cornea to the Sclera in Non-Human Primate Emmetropization.Investigative ophthalmology & visual science · 2026Article
- Ocular biometry in isolated versus disease-associated high myopia in children and adolescents: A retrospective observational study.Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology = Albrecht von Graefes Archiv fur klinische und experimentelle Ophthalmologie · 2026Article
- Associations Among the Gradient Refractive Index of the Lens, Axial Length, and Refractive State in the Developing Murine Eye.Investigative ophthalmology & visual science · 2026Article
- Multi-grader validation of the telemedicine retinopathy of prematurity severity score.Scientific reports · 2026Article
- Factors Influencing the Transition From Physiological Hyperopia to Myopia in Children: Protocol for a Prospective Nested Case-Control Study.JMIR research protocols · 2026Article
- Growth Trajectories During Early Childhood and Ocular Development in High-Risk Infants.Investigative ophthalmology & visual science · 2026Article
- Ultrasonographic Ocular Biometry of the Greater Caribbean Manatee (Trichechus manatus manatus).Veterinary ophthalmology · 2026Article
- Age-dependent and reversible refractive changes in 0-6 years old children associated with reduced outdoor activity: a six-year community-based study.Scientific reports · 2026Article
- Refractive Errors and Ocular Biometric Parameters in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder in Handan: A Cross-Sectional Study.International journal of general medicine · 2026Article
- Exploration of visual perception metrics as indicators for myopia screening.Lasers in medical science · 2025Article
- A Conserved Mechanism in Eye Optical Development: Lens Nucleus Centralization inbioRxiv : the preprint server for biology · 2025Article
- Spherical Equivalent Percentile Curves in a Portuguese School-Aged Population.Journal of clinical medicine · 2025Article
- Age, gender and regional/ethnic variations in emmetropic axial growth rate.Ophthalmic & physiological optics : the journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians (Optometrists) · 2025Article
- Longitudinal development of ocular biometric components and refractive error in children with hyperopic anisometropia.Ophthalmic & physiological optics : the journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians (Optometrists) · 2025Article
- Axial Length Dynamics and Safety of Occlusion Therapy in Pediatric Amblyopia: A Longitudinal Analysis.Investigative ophthalmology & visual science · 2025Article
- Refractive development III: Variations in emmetropia and ametropia.Ophthalmic & physiological optics : the journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians (Optometrists) · 2025Article
- Topical review: Potential mechanisms of atropine for myopia control.Optometry and vision science : official publication of the American Academy of Optometry · 2025Review
- Associations between refraction and ocular biometry in Chinese preschoolers aged 3-6 years: a cross-sectional study in Shunyi, Beijing.BMJ open · 2025Article
8 more citing papers are in PubMed but not listed here.
Corrections and comments
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Authors and funding
7 authors.
Funding
Abstract
significanceThe study fills an important gap by providing a longitudinal description of development of the major structural and optical components of the human eye from 3 months to nearly 7 years of age. Normative development data may provide insights into mechanisms for emmetropization and guidance on intraocular lens power calculation. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to describe the pattern of development of refractive error and the ocular components from infancy through early childhood.
methodsCycloplegic retinoscopy (cyclopentolate 1%), keratophakometry, and ultrasonography were performed longitudinally on between 162 and 293 normal birth weight infants at 0.25, 0.75, 1.5, 3, 4.5, and 6.5 years of age.
resultsRefractive error and most ocular components displayed an early exponential phase of rapid development during the first 1 to 2 years of life followed by a slower quadratic phase. Anterior and vitreous chamber depths, axial length, and crystalline lens radii increased at every visit. The crystalline lens thinned throughout the ages studied. The power of the cornea showed an early decrease, then stabilized, whereas the crystalline lens showed more robust decreases in power. The crystalline lens refractive index followed a polynomial growth and decay model, with an early increase followed by a decrease starting at 1 to 2 years of age. Refractive error became less hyperopic and then was relatively stable after 1 to 2 years of age. Axial lengths increased by 3.35 ± 0.64 mm between ages 0.25 and 6.5 years, showed uniform rates of growth across the range of initial values, and were correlated with initial axial lengths (r = 0.44, P < .001).
conclusionsEarly ocular optical and structural development appears to be biphasic, with emmetropization occurring within the first 2 years of infancy during a rapid exponential phase. A more stable refractive error follows during a slower quadratic phase of growth when axial elongation is compensated primarily by changes in crystalline lens power.
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