ReviewImmunology2019
Impact of sex hormones on immune function and multiple sclerosis development.
Review in Immunology, 2019. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 139 papers, 3 of them syntheses that pooled it.
What it found
Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.
The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
The trial behind it
Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.
Who cites it
139 citing papers in PubMed, 3 syntheses or guidelines pooled it, 242 citations in OpenAlex.
- The association between prescribed hormonal contraception and multiple sclerosis risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Neurological sciences : official journal of the Italian Neurological Society and of the Italian Society of Clinical Neurophysiology · 2026Pooled it
- Impact of menopause on relapse rate and disability level in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS): a systematic review and meta-analysis.BMC neurology · 2023Pooled it
- Potential Protective Role of Pregnancy and Breastfeeding in Delaying Onset Symptoms Related to Multiple Sclerosis.Medicina (Kaunas, Lithuania) · 2023Pooled it
- Sex- and age-related shift of relapse phenotypes in a cohort of relapsing multiple sclerosis patients: Post hoc analysis from the OPERA phase 3 trials.European journal of neurology · 2024Trial
- Sex- and age-specific associations ofAnnals of medicine · 2026Article
- Understanding the Role of Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal Axis in Multiple Sclerosis and Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis.Biomedicines · 2026Review
- Sexual dimorphism in the colonic microbiome and host's transcriptomics profiles of a murine model of multiple sclerosis.Clinical immunology communications · 2026Article
- Demyelinating disorders in women: epidemiology, immunology, and clinical implications across MS, NMOSD, and MOGAD.Journal of neurology · 2026Review
- The burden and trends of late-onset multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease and other dementias among adults aged 55 and older, spanning from 1990 to 2021, with projections through 2050.Neurological sciences : official journal of the Italian Neurological Society and of the Italian Society of Clinical Neurophysiology · 2026Article
- Expert Opinion on Age-Related Sex Hormone Changes and Hypogonadism in People With Multiple Sclerosis: A Delphi Consensus Program.Neurology. Clinical practice · 2026Review
- The Immunosuppression Paradox in Multiple Sclerosis: Are We Fueling the Fire by Suppressing Immunity in an Epstein-Barr Virus-Linked Disease?Open forum infectious diseases · 2026Review
- Neuroglial Function and Hormonal Modulation in Neurodegenerative Diseases: The Influence of Sex Hormones.Cellular and molecular neurobiology · 2026Review
- Article
- Sex differences in the development, treatment, and prognosis of multiple sclerosis in Switzerland.Frontiers in neuroscience · 2026Article
- Invisible symptoms and associated factors in multiple sclerosis patients.Journal of education and health promotion · 2026Article
- Menopause Impact on Multiple Sclerosis Disability Progression.JAMA neurology · 2025Article
- Beyond the optic disc: Investigating gender-based differences in optic neuritis.World journal of clinical cases · 2025Review
- Microbiota-Derived SCFAs in Multiple Sclerosis: From Immune Priming to Neurodegeneration.Molecular neurobiology · 2025Review
- Modulation of Auditory Cortex Activity in Salicylate-Induced Tinnitus Rats via Deep Brain Stimulation of the Inferior Colliculus.Brain and behavior · 2025Article
- Impact of sex on multiple sclerosis therapy.Neurotherapeutics : the journal of the American Society for Experimental NeuroTherapeutics · 2025Review
79 more citing papers are in PubMed but not listed here.
Corrections and comments
PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.
Authors and funding
2 authors at 1 institution in 1 country.
Funding
No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS) affecting young people and leading to demyelination and neurodegeneration. The disease is clearly more common in women, in whom incidence has been rising. Gender differences include: earlier disease onset and more frequent relapses in women; and faster progression and worse outcomes in men. Hormone-related physiological conditions in women such as puberty, pregnancy, puerperium, and menopause also exert significant influence both on disease prevalence as well as on outcomes. Hormonal and/or genetic factors are therefore believed to be involved in regulating the course of disease. In this review, we discuss clinical evidence for the impact of sex hormones (estrogens, progesterone, prolactin, and testosterone) on MS and attempt to elucidate the hormonal and immunological mechanisms potentially underlying these changes. We also review current knowledge on the relationship between sex hormones and resident CNS cells and provide new insights in the context of MS. Understanding these molecular mechanisms may contribute to the development of new and safer treatments for both men and women.
Indexed as
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What OpenQuestion holds
Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.