Protrusion Force Microscopy: A Method to Quantify Forces Developed by Cell Protrusions.

In numerous biological contexts, animal cells need to interact physically with their environment by developing mechanical forces. Among these, traction forces have been well-characterized, but there is a lack of techniques allowing the measurement of the protrusion forces exerted by cells orthogonally to their substrate. We designed an experimental setup to measure the protrusion forces exerted by adherent cells on their substrate. Cells plated on a compliant Formvar sheet deform this substrate and the resulting topography is mapped by atomic force microscopy (AFM) at the nanometer scale. Force values are then extracted from an analysis of the deformation profile based on the geometry of the protrusive cellular structures. Hence, the forces exerted by the individual protruding units of a living cell can be measured over time. This technique will enable the study of force generation and its regulation in the many cellular processes involving protrusion. Here, we describe its application to measure the protrusive forces generated by podosomes formed by human macrophages.