ArticlePLoS neglected tropical diseases2018
Epidemiology and risk factors for typhoid fever in Central Division, Fiji, 2014-2017: A case-control study.
Article in PLoS neglected tropical diseases, 2018. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 24 papers, 4 of them syntheses that pooled it.
What it found
Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.
The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
The trial behind it
Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.
Who cites it
24 citing papers in PubMed, 4 syntheses or guidelines pooled it, 53 citations in OpenAlex.
- Risk Factors for Typhoid Fever: Systematic Review.JMIR public health and surveillance · 2025Pooled it
- Associations of water, sanitation, and hygiene with typhoid fever in case-control studies: a systematic review and meta-analysis.BMC infectious diseases · 2023Pooled it
- Drinking water and the implications for gender equity and empowerment: A systematic review of qualitative and quantitative evidence.International journal of hygiene and environmental health · 2023Pooled it
- Global Typhoid Fever Incidence: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America · 2019Pooled it
- Un-Matched 1:1 Retrospective Case-Control Study of the Transmission of Typhoid Fever in Neno District, Malawi.Public health challenges · 2025Article
- Sociodemographic and clinical factors influencing typhoid fever prevalence and multidrug resistance in Niger State, Nigeria.PloS one · 2025Article
- Spatiotemporal distribution and influencing factors of enteric fever in China: a cluster analysis based on data from 2001 to 2020.Frontiers in public health · 2025Article
- Prevalence of Salmonella Typhi, its associated factors and antimicrobial susceptibility profile among patients attending Hawassa University Comprehensive Specialized Hospital, Hawassa, Ethiopia.BMC infectious diseases · 2024Article
- Immunological feedback loops generate parasite persistence thresholds that explain variation in infection duration.Proceedings. Biological sciences · 2024Article
- Household and Environmental Typhoid Fever Transmission in Bandar Lampung City, Indonesia: A Case-Control Study.JNMA; journal of the Nepal Medical Association · 2024Article
- Article
- Rapid stool antigenic test for typhoid fever among suspected cases, Northeast, Ethiopia.Scientific reports · 2023Article
- Genomic epidemiology ofThe Lancet regional health. Western Pacific · 2022Article
- Genetic Susceptibility to Enteric Fever in Experimentally Challenged Human Volunteers.Infection and immunity · 2022Article
- Assessment of Rapid Diagnostic Tests for Typhoid Diagnosis and Assessment of Febrile Illness Outbreaks in Fiji.The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene · 2021Article
- Case-Control Study of Household and Environmental Transmission of Typhoid Fever in India.The Journal of infectious diseases · 2021Article
- Incidence of Enteric Fever in a Pediatric Cohort in North India: Comparison with Estimates from 20 Years Earlier.The Journal of infectious diseases · 2021Article
- Association between sanitary toilet coverage rate and intestinal infectious disease in Jiangsu Province, China.Scientific reports · 2021Article
- Risk Factors of Extensively Drug Resistant Typhoid Fever Among Children in Karachi: Case-Control Study.JMIR public health and surveillance · 2021Article
- Salmonella Typhi and Salmonella Paratyphi prevalence, antimicrobial susceptibility profile and factors associated with enteric fever infection in Bahir Dar, Ethiopia.Scientific reports · 2021Article
Corrections and comments
PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.
Authors and funding
15 authors at 7 institutions in 3 countries.
Funding
No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.
Abstract
backgroundTyphoid fever is endemic in Fiji, with high reported annual incidence. We sought to identify the sources and modes of transmission of typhoid fever in Fiji with the aim to inform disease control. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL
findingsWe identified and surveyed patients with blood culture-confirmed typhoid fever from January 2014 through January 2017. For each typhoid fever case we matched two controls by age interval, gender, ethnicity, and residential area. Univariable and multivariable analysis were used to evaluate associations between exposures and risk for typhoid fever. We enrolled 175 patients with typhoid fever and 349 controls. Of the cases, the median (range) age was 29 (2-67) years, 86 (49%) were male, and 84 (48%) lived in a rural area. On multivariable analysis, interrupted water availability (odds ratio [OR] = 2.17; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.18-4.00), drinking surface water in the last 2 weeks (OR = 3.61; 95% CI 1.44-9.06), eating unwashed produce (OR = 2.69; 95% CI 1.48-4.91), and having an unimproved or damaged sanitation facility (OR = 4.30; 95% CI 1.14-16.21) were significantly associated with typhoid fever. Frequent handwashing after defecating (OR = 0.57; 95% CI 0.35-0.93) and using soap for handwashing (OR = 0.61; 95% CI 0.37-0.95) were independently associated with a lower odds of typhoid fever.
conclusionsPoor sanitation facilities appear to be a major source of Salmonella Typhi in Fiji, with transmission by drinking contaminated surface water and consuming unwashed produce. Improved sanitation facilities and protection of surface water sources and produce from contamination by human feces are likely to contribute to typhoid control in Fiji.
Indexed as
Identifiers
What OpenQuestion holds
Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.