ArticleInternational journal of epidemiology2018
Spillover effects in epidemiology: parameters, study designs and methodological considerations.
Article in International journal of epidemiology, 2018. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. It is linked to trial NCT05154006 (Promoting Self-efficacy and Social Support to Enable Women to Reduce the Risks of Pelvic Organ Prolapse Related to Heavy Lifting in a Non-randomized Controlled Trial With a 3-arm Parallel Intervention Group Design in Rural Nepal), which is not on this map. Cited by 65 papers, 1 of them a synthesis that pooled it.
What it found
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The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
The trial behind it
Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
Promoting Self-efficacy and Social Support to Enable Women to Reduce the Risks of Pelvic Organ Prolapse Related to Heavy Lifting in a Non-randomized Controlled Trial With a 3-arm Parallel Intervention Group Design in Rural Nepal
Who cites it
65 citing papers in PubMed, 1 synthesis or guideline pooled it.
- A Review of the Ring Trial Design for Evaluating Ring Interventions for Infectious Diseases.Epidemiologic reviews · 2022Pooled it
- Financial Incentives for COVID-19 Vaccination: A Cluster Randomized Clinical Trial.JAMA network open · 2025Trial
- Assessment of Spillover of Antimicrobial Resistance to Untreated Children 7-12 Years Old After Mass Drug Administration of Azithromycin for Child Survival in Niger: A Secondary Analysis of the MORDOR Cluster-Randomized Trial.Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America · 2024Trial
- Extension of efficacy range for targeted malaria-elimination interventions due to spillover effects.Nature medicine · 2024Trial
- Overall, Direct, Spillover, and Composite Effects of Components of a Peer-Driven Intervention Package on Injection Risk Behavior Among People Who Inject Drugs in the HPTN 037 Study.AIDS and behavior · 2024Trial
- Financial incentives for COVID-19 vaccines in a rural low-resource setting: a cluster-randomized trial.Nature medicine · 2023Trial
- Trial
- Spillover benefit of pre-exposure prophylaxis for HIV prevention: evaluating the importance of effect modification using an agent-based model.Epidemiology and infection · 2022Trial
- Targeted Antibiotics for Trachoma: A Cluster-Randomized Trial.Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America · 2021Trial
- Community-level spillover effects of an intervention to prevent intimate partner violence and HIV transmission in rural Ethiopia.BMJ global health · 2021Trial
- Trial
- The effect of youths as change agents on cardiovascular disease risk factors among adult neighbours: a cluster randomised controlled trial in Sri Lanka.BMC public health · 2019Trial
- A Randomized Controlled Trial to Measure Spillover Effects of a Combined Water, Sanitation, and Handwashing Intervention in Rural Bangladesh.American journal of epidemiology · 2018Trial
- Article
- Are arms-based methods required to test the stable unit treatment value assumption (SUTVA) among Cochrane reviews of contagious infection prevention interventions?Global epidemiology · 2026Article
- Geographic spillover of antimicrobial resistance from mass distribution of azithromycin.Nature communications · 2026Article
- Institutional spillover effects of antimicrobial use on antimicrobial resistance andAntimicrobial stewardship & healthcare epidemiology : ASHE · 2026Article
- Trends in uncomplicated and severe malaria following seasonal malaria chemoprevention administration in Nouna, Burkina Faso: a quasi-experimental pre-post study.Malaria journal · 2025Article
- Article
- Individualizing social determinants of health: is educational attainment a community resource?European journal of epidemiology · 2025Article
5 more citing papers are in PubMed but not listed here.
Corrections and comments
PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.
Authors and funding
7 authors.
Funding
No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.
Abstract
Many public health interventions provide benefits that extend beyond their direct recipients and impact people in close physical or social proximity who did not directly receive the intervention themselves. A classic example of this phenomenon is the herd protection provided by many vaccines. If these 'spillover effects' (i.e. 'herd effects') are present in the same direction as the effects on the intended recipients, studies that only estimate direct effects on recipients will likely underestimate the full public health benefits of the intervention. Causal inference assumptions for spillover parameters have been articulated in the vaccine literature, but many studies measuring spillovers of other types of public health interventions have not drawn upon that literature. In conjunction with a systematic review we conducted of spillovers of public health interventions delivered in low- and middle-income countries, we classified the most widely used spillover parameters reported in the empirical literature into a standard notation. General classes of spillover parameters include: cluster-level spillovers; spillovers conditional on treatment or outcome density, distance or the number of treated social network links; and vaccine efficacy parameters related to spillovers. We draw on high quality empirical examples to illustrate each of these parameters. We describe study designs to estimate spillovers and assumptions required to make causal inferences about spillovers. We aim to advance and encourage methods for spillover estimation and reporting by standardizing spillover parameter nomenclature and articulating the causal inference assumptions required to estimate spillovers.
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Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.