ArticleBMC infectious diseases2017
Direct and indirect effects of influenza vaccination.
Article in BMC infectious diseases, 2017. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 53 papers, 2 of them syntheses that pooled it.
What it found
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The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
The trial behind it
Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
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Who cites it
53 citing papers in PubMed, 2 syntheses or guidelines pooled it, 94 citations in OpenAlex.
- Optimizing influenza prevention: a systematic review of the cost-effectiveness of pediatric vaccination programs and vaccine types.Frontiers in public health · 2025Pooled it
- Incorporating human dynamic populations in models of infectious disease transmission: a systematic review.BMC infectious diseases · 2022Pooled it
- Indirect protection and long-term effectiveness of inactivated COVID-19 vaccine: a stepped-wedge randomised trial in Serrana, Brazil.Scientific reports · 2026Trial
- A study of booster dose influenza vaccination responses compared to standard dose in lupus patients: an open-labeled, randomized controlled study.Clinical and experimental medicine · 2025Trial
- Trial
- Examining the interaction between area-level immunity coverage and individual-level immunity to help quantify indirect herd benefits: a population-based retrospective cohort study of COVID-19 diagnoses and deaths.American journal of epidemiology · 2026Article
- A Human Mobility-Based Modeling Study of Influenza Vaccination Strategies Across Socioeconomically Disparate Regions in China.Vaccines · 2026Article
- Assessment of influenza burden, preventive behaviours, and vaccination uptake among multi-ethnic university students in the United Arab Emirates: a cross-sectional study.BMC infectious diseases · 2026Article
- Potential Non-Specific Benefits of Seasonal Influenza Vaccination: Evidence, Knowledge Gaps, and Future Directions.Vaccines · 2026Review
- Decreased risk of chronic fatigue syndrome following influenza vaccine: a 20-year population-based retrospective study.Journal of translational medicine · 2025Article
- Estimated Burden of Influenza and Direct and Indirect Benefits of Influenza Vaccination.JAMA network open · 2025Article
- Disparities in Seasonal Influenza Vaccination in Europe.Immunity, inflammation and disease · 2025Review
- Article
- Evaluating the effectiveness of vaccination campaigns: Insights from unvaccinated mortality data.Infectious Disease Modelling · 2025Article
- Direct and indirect effects of hepatitis B vaccination in four low- and middle-income countries.Epidemics · 2024Article
- Estimating Influenza Illnesses Averted by Year-Round and Seasonal Campaign Vaccination for Young Children, Kenya.Emerging infectious diseases · 2024Article
- Article
- Quantifying indirect and direct vaccination effects arising in the SIR model.Journal of the Royal Society, Interface · 2024Article
- Estimates of Seasonal Influenza Burden That Could Be Averted by Improved Influenza Vaccines in the Australian Population Aged Under 65 Years, 2015-2019.Influenza and other respiratory viruses · 2024Article
- Assessing the impact of Australia's mass vaccination campaigns over the Delta and Omicron outbreaks.PloS one · 2024Article
Corrections and comments
PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.
Authors and funding
4 authors at 1 institution in 1 country.
Funding
No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.
Abstract
backgroundAfter vaccination, vaccinees acquire some protection against infection and/or disease. Vaccination, therefore, reduces the number of infections in the population. Due to this herd protection, not everybody needs to be vaccinated to prevent infections from spreading.
methodsWe quantify direct and indirect effects of influenza vaccination examining the standard Susceptible-Infected-Recovered (SIR) and Susceptible-Infected-Recovered-Susceptible (SIRS) model as well as simulation results of a sophisticated simulation tool which allows for seasonal transmission of four influenza strains in a population with realistic demography and age-dependent contact patterns.
resultsAs shown analytically for the simple SIR and SIRS transmission models, indirect vaccination effects are bigger than direct ones if the effective reproduction number of disease transmission is close to the critical value of 1. Simulation results for 20-60% vaccination with live influenza vaccine of 2-17 year old children in Germany, averaged over 10 years (2017-26), confirm this result: four to seven times as many influenza cases are prevented among non-vaccinated individuals as among vaccinees. For complications like death due to influenza which occur much more frequently in the unvaccinated elderly than in the vaccination target group of children, indirect benefits can surpass direct ones by a factor of 20 or even more than 30.
conclusionsThe true effect of vaccination can be much bigger than what would be expected by only looking at vaccination coverage and vaccine efficacy.
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Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.