Widespread Genetic Incompatibilities between First-Step Mutations during Parallel Adaptation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae to a Common Environment.

Independently evolving populations may adapt to similar selection pressures via different genetic changes. The interactions between such changes, such as in a hybrid individual, can inform us about what course adaptation may follow and allow us to determine whether gene flow would be facilitated or hampered following secondary contact. We used Saccharomyces cerevisiae to measure the genetic interactions between first-step mutations that independently evolved in the same biosynthetic pathway following exposure to the fungicide nystatin. We found that genetic interactions are prevalent and predominantly negative, with the majority of mutations causing lower growth when combined in a double mutant than when alone as a single mutant (sign epistasis). The prevalence of sign epistasis is surprising given the small number of mutations tested and runs counter to expectations for mutations arising in a single biosynthetic pathway in the face of a simple selective pressure. Furthermore, in one third of pairwise interactions, the double mutant grew less well than either single mutant (reciprocal sign epistasis). The observation of reciprocal sign epistasis among these first adaptive mutations arising in the same genetic background indicates that partial postzygotic reproductive isolation could evolve rapidly between populations under similar selective pressures, even with only a single genetic change in each. The nature of the epistatic relationships was sensitive, however, to the level of drug stress in the assay conditions, as many double mutants became fitter than the single mutants at higher concentrations of nystatin. We discuss the implications of these results both for our understanding of epistatic interactions among beneficial mutations in the same biochemical pathway and for speciation.