ReviewToxins2016
Indoxyl Sulfate-Review of Toxicity and Therapeutic Strategies.
Review in Toxins, 2016. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 148 papers.
What it found
Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.
The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
The trial behind it
Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.
Who cites it
148 citing papers in PubMed, 261 citations in OpenAlex.
- Effects of probiotic supplementation on disease progression in patients with moderate to severe chronic kidney disease: a randomized controlled trial.Scientific reports · 2026Trial
- Testosterone administration partially modulates gut microbiota responses to severe energy deficit.American journal of physiology. Endocrinology and metabolism · 2026Trial
- Modulating effects of microbiota on synbiotic intervention outcomes for microbiota-derived trimethylamine, trimethylamine N-oxide and indoxyl sulfate in healthy young medical students: insights from a 12-week randomized clinical trial.Journal of translational medicine · 2025Trial
- Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus attenuates uremic toxins in patients with nondialysis chronic kidney disease through the anti-inflammatory molecules.Scientific reports · 2025Trial
- The effects of synbiotics on indoxyl sulphate level, constipation, and quality of life associated with constipation in chronic haemodialysis patients: a randomized controlled trial.BMC nephrology · 2022Trial
- Trial
- Exploratory Application of Neuropharmacometabolomics in Severe Childhood Traumatic Brain Injury.Critical care medicine · 2018Trial
- Indoxyl Sulfate Elimination in Renal Replacement Therapy: Influence of Citrate- versus Acetate-Buffering Component during Bicarbonate Dialysis.Disease markers · 2018Trial
- Article
- Trained Immunity as a Mechanistic Bridge Between Uremic Toxins, Atherosclerosis, and Vascular Calcification in Chronic Kidney Disease.Cardiovascular toxicology · 2026Review
- Gut microbiota-atrium axis: Microbiota metabolite-mediated regulation of the NLRP3 inflammasome in atrial fibrillation-pathophysiological roles and therapeutic perspectives.Heart rhythm O2 · 2026Review
- Salvianolic Acid B Upregulates miR-744-5p Expression in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles to Alleviate Uremic Cardiomyopathy.Journal of extracellular vesicles · 2026Article
- The Effects of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation on Tryptophan Metabolism and Depressive-Like Behavior in Mice.Brain and behavior · 2026Article
- Impacts of Uremic Toxins on the Population Pharmacokinetics of Total Mycophenolic Acid and its Glucuronide Metabolite in Adult Kidney Transplant Recipients.Clinical pharmacokinetics · 2026Observational
- Review
- Review
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- The Intestinal Barrier: A Multilayered Gatekeeper Against Systemic Disease.International journal of microbiology · 2026Review
- Indoxyl sulfate in the gut-kidney axis: from diet-microbiome interactions to renal injury and targeted therapies.Frontiers in nutrition · 2026Review
- Comparative effects of dairy, hybrid and plant-based protein blends (including fibre fortification) on amino acid profiles and gut microbiota adaptations: The Promephy study.Current research in food science · 2026Article
88 more citing papers are in PubMed but not listed here.
Corrections and comments
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Authors and funding
2 authors at 1 institution in 1 country.
Funding
Abstract
Indoxyl sulfate is an extensively studied uremic solute. It is a small molecule that is more than 90% bound to plasma proteins. Indoxyl sulfate is derived from the breakdown of tryptophan by colon microbes. The kidneys achieve high clearances of indoxyl sulfate by tubular secretion, a function not replicated by hemodialysis. Clearance by hemodialysis is limited by protein binding since only the free, unbound solute can diffuse across the membrane. Since the dialytic clearance is much lower than the kidney clearance, indoxyl sulfate accumulates to relatively high plasma levels in hemodialysis patients. Indoxyl sulfate has been most frequently implicated as a contributor to renal disease progression and vascular disease. Studies have suggested that indoxyl sulfate also has adverse effects on bones and the central nervous system. The majority of studies have assessed toxicity in cultured cells and animal models. The toxicity in humans has not yet been proven, as most data have been from association studies. Such toxicity data, albeit inconclusive, have prompted efforts to lower the plasma levels of indoxyl sulfate through dialytic and non-dialytic means. The largest randomized trial showed no benefit in renal disease progression with AST-120. No trials have yet tested cardiovascular or mortality benefit. Without such trials, the toxicity of indoxyl sulfate cannot be firmly established.
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What OpenQuestion holds
Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.