ArticleBulletin of the World Health Organization2016
Inequalities in full immunization coverage: trends in low- and middle-income countries.
Article in Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 2016. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 107 papers, 5 of them syntheses that pooled it.
What it found
Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.
The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
The trial behind it
Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.
Who cites it
107 citing papers in PubMed, 5 syntheses or guidelines pooled it, 186 citations in OpenAlex.
- Vaccine equity in low and middle income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis.International journal for equity in health · 2022Pooled it
- Madagascar's EPI vaccine programs: A systematic review uncovering the role of a child's sex and other barriers to vaccination.Frontiers in public health · 2022Pooled it
- Full immunization coverage and associated factors among children age 12-23 months in Ethiopia: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies.Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics · 2021Pooled it
- The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Immunization Campaigns and Programs: A Systematic Review.International journal of environmental research and public health · 2021Pooled it
- Determinants of effective vaccine coverage in low and middle-income countries: a systematic review and interpretive synthesis.BMC health services research · 2017Pooled it
- Descriptive analysis of routine childhood vaccination coverage of selected vaccines in Nigeria (1980-2023) using the Global Burden of Disease Study (2023).Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics · 2026Article
- Hepatitis B and D burden in Uzbekistan: comprehensive analysis of seroprevalence and risk correlates from a countrywide study.Infectious diseases of poverty · 2026Article
- Microneedles for Vaccination: Mechanistic Foundations, Materials Innovation, Clinical Translation, and Global Health Implementation.Pharmaceutics · 2026Review
- Bridging the immunisation gap: socioeconomic and geographic drivers of pediatric immunisation disparities between different Indian states.BMC pediatrics · 2026Article
- Modeling Zero-Dose Children in Ethiopia: A Machine Learning Perspective on Model Performance and Predictor Variables.JMIR pediatrics and parenting · 2026Article
- Routine childhood immunization coverage, timeliness, dropout, and missed opportunities in Northern Ghana: Evidence from a community-based survey in Tamale Metropolis, Ghana.PLOS global public health · 2026Article
- Progress and gaps in childhood immunization among two-year-olds in Ghana (1993-2022): A trend and equity analysis.PloS one · 2026Article
- Global patterns and demographic drivers of hearing loss attributable to otitis media, 1990-2023.PloS one · 2026Article
- Article
- Vaccination Coverage and Determinants Among Children Aged 12-35 Months Following Internal Conflict in Yemen: Insights from a Nationwide Population-Based Survey.Maternal and child health journal · 2025Article
- Article
- Multilevel Analysis of Zero-Dose Children in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Three Delays Model Study.Vaccines · 2025Article
- Construction of Development Scores to Analyze Inequalities in Childhood Immunization Coverage: A Global Analysis from 2000 to 2021.International journal of environmental research and public health · 2025Article
- Review
- Trends in coverage following an equity-oriented strategy for introducing new vaccines, Peru, 2004-2022.Bulletin of the World Health Organization · 2025Article
47 more citing papers are in PubMed but not listed here.
Corrections and comments
PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.
Authors and funding
8 authors at 3 institutions in 3 countries.
Funding
No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.
Abstract
objectiveTo investigate disparities in full immunization coverage across and within 86 low- and middle-income countries.
methodsIn May 2015, using data from the most recent Demographic and Health Surveys and Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys, we investigated inequalities in full immunization coverage - i.e. one dose of bacille Calmette-Guérin vaccine, one dose of measles vaccine, three doses of vaccine against diphtheria, pertussis and tetanus and three doses of polio vaccine - in 86 low- or middle-income countries. We then investigated temporal trends in the level and inequality of such coverage in eight of the countries.
findingsIn each of the World Health Organization's regions, it appeared that about 56-69% of eligible children in the low- and middle-income countries had received full immunization. However, within each region, the mean recorded level of such coverage varied greatly. In the African Region, for example, it varied from 11.4% in Chad to 90.3% in Rwanda. We detected pro-rich inequality in such coverage in 45 of the 83 countries for which the relevant data were available and pro-urban inequality in 35 of the 86 study countries. Among the countries in which we investigated coverage trends, Madagascar and Mozambique appeared to have made the greatest progress in improving levels of full immunization coverage over the last two decades, particularly among the poorest quintiles of their populations.
conclusionMost low- and middle-income countries are affected by pro-rich and pro-urban inequalities in full immunization coverage that are not apparent when only national mean values of such coverage are reported.
Indexed as
Identifiers
What OpenQuestion holds
Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.