Environmentally induced return to juvenile-like chemosensitivity in the respiratory control system of adult bullfrog, Lithobates catesbeianus.

key pointsThe degree to which developmental programmes or environmental signals determine physiological phenotypes remains a major question in physiology. Vertebrates change environments during development, confounding interpretation of the degree to which development (i.e. permanent processes) or phenotypic plasticity (i.e. reversible processes) produces phenotypes. Tadpoles mainly breathe water for gas exchange and frogs may breathe water or air depending on their environment and are, therefore, exemplary models to differentiate the degree to which life-stage vs. environmental context drives developmental phenotypes associated with neural control of lung breathing. Using isolated brainstem preparations and patch clamp electrophysiology, we demonstrate that adult bullfrogs acclimatized to water-breathing conditions do not exhibit CO ABSTRACT: An unanswered question in developmental physiology is to what extent does the environment vs. a genetic programme produce phenotypes? Developing animals inhabit different environments and switch from one to another. Thus a developmental time course overlapping with environmental change confounds interpretations as to whether development (i.e. permanent processes) or phenotypic plasticity (i.e. reversible processes) generates phenotypes. Tadpoles of the American bullfrog, Lithobates catesbeianus, breathe water at early life-stages and minimally use lungs for gas exchange. As adults, bullfrogs rely on lungs for gas exchange, but spend months per year in ice-covered ponds without lung breathing. Aquatic submergence, therefore, removes environmental pressures requiring lung breathing and enables separation of adulthood from environmental factors associated with adulthood that necessitate control of lung ventilation. To test the hypothesis that postmetamorphic respiratory control phenotypes arise through permanent developmental changes vs. reversible environmental signals, we measured respiratory-related nerve discharge in isolated brainstem preparations and action potential firing from CO