Evidence map›Paper›PMID 27242992›Full record

ArticleFrontiers in public health2016

Race and Urbanity Alter the Protective Effect of Education but not Income on Mortality.

Shervin Assari, Maryam Moghani Lankarani

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Article in Frontiers in public health, 2016. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 111 papers.

0numbers the graph read from it
0cells of the map it votes in
111citing papers in PubMed
–field-weighted citation impact
1 · What the graph read from it

What it found

Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.

The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.

2 · The registry

The trial behind it

Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.

Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.

3 · Its place in the literature

Who cites it

111 citing papers in PubMed.

  1. Diminished returns to Black health: A Canadian problem?Canadian journal of public health = Revue canadienne de sante publique · 2026
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  4. Skin-deep resilience in the Black women's experiences living with lupus study.Health psychology : official journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association · 2025
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  6. High Systolic Blood Pressure of High-Income African American Children.Journal of racial and ethnic health disparities · 2024
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  7. Immigration, Educational Attainment, and Subjective Health in the United States.Journal of mental health & clinical psychology · 2024
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  11. Immigration Status, Socioeconomic Status, and Self-Rated Health in Europe.International journal of environmental research and public health · 2022
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51 more citing papers are in PubMed but not listed here.

4 · The record

Corrections and comments

PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.

5 · Who and what money

Authors and funding

2 authors.

Shervin AssariDepartment of Psychiatry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA; Center for Research on Ethnicity, Culture and Health, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
Maryam Moghani LankaraniMedicine and Health Promotion Institute , Tehran , Iran.

Funding

UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL DISPARITIES IN HEALTH AND AGINGR01AG018418 · NIA · UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN AT ANN ARBOR · PI BURGARD, SARAH A. · 2000 to 2015
$6.3M
NIA NIH HHS R01 AG018418
6 · The paper itself

Abstract

backgroundAlthough the effects of socioeconomic status (SES) on mortality are well established, these effects may vary based on contextual factors such as race and place. Using 25-year follow-up data of a nationally representative sample of adults in the U.S., this study had two aims: (1) to explore separate, additive, and multiplicative effects of race and place (urbanity) on mortality and (2) to test the effects of education and income on all-cause mortality based on race and place.

methodsThe Americans' Changing Lives (ACL) Study followed Whites and Blacks 25 years and older from 1986 until 2011. The focal predictors were baseline SES (education and income) collected in 1986. The main outcome was time until death due to all causes from 1986 until 2011. Age, gender, behaviors (smoking and exercise), and health (chronic medical conditions, self-rated health, and depressive symptoms) at baseline were potential confounders. A series of survey Cox proportional hazard models were used to test protective effects of education and income on mortality based on race and urbanity.

resultsRace and place had separate but not additive or multiplicative effects on mortality. Higher education and income were protective against all-cause mortality in the pooled sample. Race and urbanity significantly interacted with baseline education but not income on all-cause mortality, suggesting that the protective effect of education but not income depend on race and place. While the protective effect of education were fully explained by baseline health status, the effect of income remained significant beyond health.

conclusionIn the U.S., the health return associated with education depends on race and place. This finding suggests that populations differently benefit from SES resources, particularly education. Differential effect of education on employment and health care may explain the different protective effect of education based on race and place. Findings support the "diminishing returns" hypothesis for Blacks.

Indexed as

Blackseducationethnic groupsincomemortalitysocioeconomic statusurbanityWhites

Identifiers

PMID27242992
PMCPMC4873510

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Registered trials

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Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.