ArticleEpidemiology and infection2016
Regression approaches in the test-negative study design for assessment of influenza vaccine effectiveness.
Article in Epidemiology and infection, 2016. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 21 papers.
What it found
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The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
The trial behind it
Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.
Who cites it
21 citing papers in PubMed, 30 citations in OpenAlex.
- Evaluation of influenza vaccine effectiveness among older adults in Jiaxing, China, 2022-2025: A test negative design-based study.Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics · 2026Article
- Effectiveness of a trivalent inactivated split-virion influenza vaccine (Tri Fluvac) in Thailand: a phase IV test-negative case-control study.The Lancet regional health. Southeast Asia · 2026Article
- Effectiveness of the Approved Nirmatrelvir/Ritonavir and Molnupiravir Regimens for Treatment of Mild/Moderate Laboratory-Confirmed SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Patients Aged 18-64 Years in Hong Kong: A Population-Based Cohort Study.Clinical drug investigation · 2026Article
- Integrating Genomic Data into Test-negative Designs for Estimating Lineage-specific COVID-19 Vaccine Effectiveness.Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America · 2026Article
- Waning in influenza vaccine effectiveness against influenza A(H1N1)pdm09-associated hospitalization in children in 2012/2013.Epidemiology and infection · 2025Article
- Transmission risks of Omicron BA.5 following inactivated COVID-19 vaccines among children and adolescents in China.Communications medicine · 2024Article
- Double Negative Control Inference in Test-Negative Design Studies of Vaccine Effectiveness.Journal of the American Statistical Association · 2024Article
- Effectiveness of the booster dose of inactivated COVID-19 vaccine against Omicron BA.5 infection: a matched cohort study of adult close contacts.Respiratory research · 2023Article
- Distinguishing the Vaccine Effectiveness of Inactivated BBIBP-CorV Vaccine Booster Against the Susceptibility, Infectiousness, and Transmission of Omicron Stains: A Retrospective Cohort Study in Urumqi, China.Infectious diseases and therapy · 2023Article
- Double Negative Control Inference in Test-Negative Design Studies of Vaccine Effectiveness.ArXiv · 2023Article
- Transmission Characteristics and Inactivated Vaccine Effectiveness Against Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron BA.5 Variants in Urumqi, China.JAMA network open · 2023Article
- Transmission characteristics and inactivated vaccine effectiveness against transmission of the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron BA.2 variant in Shenzhen, China.Frontiers in immunology · 2023Article
- Vaccine effectiveness and duration of protection against symptomatic infections and severe Covid-19 outcomes in adults aged 50 years and over, France, January to mid-December 2021.Global epidemiology · 2022Article
- Article
- Effectiveness of palivizumab in preventing respiratory syncytial virus infection in high-risk children.Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics · 2021Article
- Temporal Confounding in the Test-Negative Design.American journal of epidemiology · 2020Article
- Intraseason Waning of Influenza Vaccine Effectiveness.Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America · 2019Article
- Bias of influenza vaccine effectiveness estimates from test-negative studies conducted during an influenza pandemic.Vaccine · 2019Article
- Cluster-Randomized Test-Negative Design Trials: A Novel and Efficient Method to Assess the Efficacy of Community-Level Dengue Interventions.American journal of epidemiology · 2018Article
- Assessment of Virus Interference in a Test-negative Study of Influenza Vaccine Effectiveness.Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.) · 2017Article
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Authors and funding
3 authors at 2 institutions in 3 countries.
Funding
Abstract
Influenza vaccination is the most practical means available for preventing influenza virus infection and is widely used in many countries. Because vaccine components and circulating strains frequently change, it is important to continually monitor vaccine effectiveness (VE). The test-negative design is frequently used to estimate VE. In this design, patients meeting the same clinical case definition are recruited and tested for influenza; those who test positive are the cases and those who test negative form the comparison group. When determining VE in these studies, the typical approach has been to use logistic regression, adjusting for potential confounders. Because vaccine coverage and influenza incidence change throughout the season, time is included among these confounders. While most studies use unconditional logistic regression, adjusting for time, an alternative approach is to use conditional logistic regression, matching on time. Here, we used simulation data to examine the potential for both regression approaches to permit accurate and robust estimates of VE. In situations where vaccine coverage changed during the influenza season, the conditional model and unconditional models adjusting for categorical week and using a spline function for week provided more accurate estimates. We illustrated the two approaches on data from a test-negative study of influenza VE against hospitalization in children in Hong Kong which resulted in the conditional logistic regression model providing the best fit to the data.
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Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.