Comparative toxicity of lead (Pb(2+)), copper (Cu(2+)), and mixtures of lead and copper to zebrafish embryos on a microfluidic chip.

Investigations were conducted to determine acute effects of Pb(2+) and Cu(2+) presented individually and collectively on zebrafish embryos. Aquatic safety testing requires a cheap, fast, and highly efficient platform for real-time evaluation of single and mixture of metal toxicity. In this study, we have developed a microfluidic system for phenotype-based evaluation of toxic effects of Pb(2+) and Cu(2+) using zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos. The microfluidic chip is composed of a disc-shaped concentration gradient generator and 24 culture chambers, which can generate one blank solution, seven mixture concentrations, and eight single concentrations for each metal solution, thus enabling the assessment of zebrafish embryos. To test the accuracy of this new chip platform, we have examined the toxicity and teratogenicity of Pb(2+) and Cu(2+) on embryos. The individual and combined impact of Pb(2+) and Cu(2+) on zebrafish embryonic development was quantitatively assessed by recording a series of physiological indicators, such as spontaneous motion at 22 hours post fertilization (hpf), mortality at 24 hpf, heartbeat and body length at 96 hpf, etc. It was found that Pb(2+) or Cu(2+) could induce deformity and cardiovascular toxicity in zebrafish embryos and the mixture could induce more severe toxicity. This chip is a multiplexed testing apparatus that allows for the examination of toxicity and teratogenicity for substances and it also can be used as a potentially cost-effective and rapid aquatic safety assessment tool.