ArticleInvestigative ophthalmology & visual science2015
Near heterophoria in early childhood.
Article in Investigative ophthalmology & visual science, 2015. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 16 papers.
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Who cites it
16 citing papers in PubMed.
- The Measurement and Clinical Implications of the CA/C Ratio in Binocular Vision: A Literature Review.The British and Irish orthoptic journal · 2026Review
- Article
- How Do Most Young Moderate Hyperopes Avoid Strabismus?Investigative ophthalmology & visual science · 2023Article
- Effects of Customized Progressive Addition Lenses vs. Single Vision Lenses on Myopia Progression in Children with Esophoria: A Randomized Clinical Trial.Journal of ophthalmology · 2022Article
- Reduced visual acuity in children from 5 to 6 years old, with LEA chart.Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology = Albrecht von Graefes Archiv fur klinische und experimentelle Ophthalmologie · 2021Article
- Synchronization of a Removable Optical Element with an Eye Tracker: Test Case for Heterophoria Measurement.Translational vision science & technology · 2020Article
- Vision Development Differences between Slow and Fast Motor Development in Typical Developing Toddlers: A Cross-Sectional Study.International journal of environmental research and public health · 2020Article
- Prevalence of Heterophoria in Tibetan Grade-One Students: The Lhasa Childhood Eye Study.Journal of ophthalmology · 2020Article
- Prevalence of heterophoria in a population of school children in central China: the Anyang Childhood Eye Study.International journal of ophthalmology · 2020Article
- Effects of aligning prisms on the objective and subjective fixation disparity in far distance.Journal of eye movement research · 2019Article
- Article
- The heterophoria of 3-5 year old children as a function of viewing distance and target type.Ophthalmic & physiological optics : the journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians (Optometrists) · 2017Article
- Adaptation of horizontal eye alignment in the presence of prism in young children.Journal of vision · 2016Article
- Objective Measurement of Fusional Vergence Ranges and Heterophoria in Infants and Preschool Children.Investigative ophthalmology & visual science · 2016Article
- Vergence Adaptation to Short-Duration Stimuli in Early Childhood.Investigative ophthalmology & visual science · 2016Article
- Convergence insufficiency: Review of clinical diagnostic signs.Journal of optometryReview
Corrections and comments
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Authors and funding
3 authors.
Funding
Abstract
purposeThe purpose of this study was to measure near heterophoria in young children to determine the impact of early growth and development on the alignment of the eyes.
methodsFifty young children (≥2 and <7 years of age; range of spherical equivalent refractive error -1.25 diopters [D] to +3.75 D) and 13 adults participated. Their eye position and accommodation responses, in the absence of optical correction, were measured using simultaneous Purkinje image tracking and photorefraction technology (MCS PowerRefractor, PR). The resulting heterophorias, and both accommodative convergence/accommodation (AC/A) and convergence accommodation/convergence (CA/C) ratios were then computed as a function of age, refractive error, and an alternating cover test.
resultsThe mean heterophoria after approximately 60 seconds of dissociation at a 33-cm viewing distance was 5.0 prism diopters (pd) of exophoria (SD ± 3.7) in the children (78% of children > 2 pd exophoric) and 5.6 pd of exophoria (SD ± 4.7) in adults (69% of adults > 2pd exophoric; a nonsignificant difference), with no effect of age between 2 and 6 years. In these children, heterophoria was not significantly correlated with AC/A (r = 0.25), CA/C (r = 0.12), or refractive error (r = 0.21). The mean difference between heterophoria measurements from the PR and the clinical cover test was -2.4 pd (SD = ±3.4), with an exophoric bias in the PR measurements.
conclusionsDespite developmental maturation of interpupillary distance, refractive error, and AC/A, in a typical sample of young children the predominant dissociated position is one of exophoria.
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