ArticleProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America2014
Meal frequency and timing in health and disease.
Article in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2014. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. It is linked to 5 registered trials, which are not on this map. Cited by 262 papers, 3 of them syntheses that pooled it.
What it found
Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.
The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
The trial behind it
Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
A Retrospective Study to Evaluate the Effectiveness of a Comprehensive Visceral Adiposity-Focused Anti-Obesity Program
Evaluation of Body Composition Improvement With Visceral Adiposity-Focused Anti-Obesity Telehealth Program
Assessment of Fuel Utilization and Circadian Rhythms in Overweight, Older Adults Following Time Restricted Eating - Phase 2 (FAR Phase 2)
Six Weeks of Time-restricted Feeding Improves Basal Fat Oxidation and Body Composition But Not Fat Oxidation During Exercise in Young Males: A Randomized Controlled Trial
Family-Based Meal Timing for Cancer Prevention Among Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islanders: FAMTIME
Who cites it
262 citing papers in PubMed, 3 syntheses or guidelines pooled it, 528 citations in OpenAlex.
- A new perspective on special effective interventions for metabolic syndrome risk factors: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Frontiers in public health · 2023Pooled it
- Effects of Intermittent Fasting in Human Compared to a Non-intervention Diet and Caloric Restriction: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.Frontiers in nutrition · 2022Pooled it
- Pooled it
- Sleep-Aligned Extended Overnight Fasting Improves Nighttime and Daytime Cardiometabolic Function.Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology · 2026Trial
- Inflammatory markers and blood glucose are higher after morning vs afternoon exercise in type 2 diabetes.Diabetologia · 2025Trial
- The effects of intermittent fasting on antioxidant and inflammatory markers and liver enzymes in postmenopausal, overweight and obese women with rheumatoid arthritis: a randomized controlled trial.Scientific reports · 2025Trial
- Effect of fasting-induced headache on calcitonin gene related peptide (CGRP) and other clinical biomarkers on the first day of Ramadan: Sub-analysis from a randomized open label clinical trial.The journal of headache and pain · 2024Trial
- Calorie restriction modulates the transcription of genes related to stress response and longevity in human muscle: The CALERIE study.Aging cell · 2023Trial
- Circadian Modulation of the Antioxidant Effect of Grape Consumption: A Randomized Controlled Trial.International journal of environmental research and public health · 2023Trial
- Association of meal timing with body composition and cardiometabolic risk factors in young adults.European journal of nutrition · 2023Trial
- Effect of intermittent fasting 5:2 on body composition and nutritional intake among employees with obesity in Jakarta: a randomized clinical trial.BMC research notes · 2022Trial
- Late isocaloric eating increases hunger, decreases energy expenditure, and modifies metabolic pathways in adults with overweight and obesity.Cell metabolism · 2022Trial
- Daytime eating prevents mood vulnerability in night work.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America · 2022Trial
- Interplay of Dinner Timing and MTNR1B Type 2 Diabetes Risk Variant on Glucose Tolerance and Insulin Secretion: A Randomized Crossover Trial.Diabetes care · 2022Trial
- Trial
- Stability of the timing of food intake at daily and monthly timescales in young adults.Scientific reports · 2020Trial
- Skipping Breakfast for 6 Days Delayed the Circadian Rhythm of the Body Temperature without Altering Clock Gene Expression in Human Leukocytes.Nutrients · 2020Trial
- Effects of Ramadan Intermittent Fasting on Gut Hormones and Body Composition in Males with Obesity.International journal of environmental research and public health · 2020Trial
- Ten-Hour Time-Restricted Eating Reduces Weight, Blood Pressure, and Atherogenic Lipids in Patients with Metabolic Syndrome.Cell metabolism · 2020Trial
- Four nights of sleep restriction suppress the postprandial lipemic response and decrease satiety.Journal of lipid research · 2019Trial
202 more citing papers are in PubMed but not listed here.
Corrections and comments
PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.
Authors and funding
13 authors at 12 institutions in 3 countries.
Funding
Abstract
Although major research efforts have focused on how specific components of foodstuffs affect health, relatively little is known about a more fundamental aspect of diet, the frequency and circadian timing of meals, and potential benefits of intermittent periods with no or very low energy intakes. The most common eating pattern in modern societies, three meals plus snacks every day, is abnormal from an evolutionary perspective. Emerging findings from studies of animal models and human subjects suggest that intermittent energy restriction periods of as little as 16 h can improve health indicators and counteract disease processes. The mechanisms involve a metabolic shift to fat metabolism and ketone production, and stimulation of adaptive cellular stress responses that prevent and repair molecular damage. As data on the optimal frequency and timing of meals crystalizes, it will be critical to develop strategies to incorporate those eating patterns into health care policy and practice, and the lifestyles of the population.
Indexed as
Identifiers
What OpenQuestion holds
Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.