SynthesisExpert review of vaccines2014
Potential of the test-negative design for measuring influenza vaccine effectiveness: a systematic review.
Synthesis in Expert review of vaccines, 2014. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 106 papers, 3 of them syntheses that pooled it.
What it found
Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.
The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
The trial behind it
Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.
Who cites it
106 citing papers in PubMed, 3 syntheses or guidelines pooled it.
- The Use of Test-negative Controls to Monitor Vaccine Effectiveness: A Systematic Review of Methodology.Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.) · 2020Pooled it
- Estimating Influenza Vaccine Effectiveness With the Test-Negative Design Using Alternative Control Groups: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.American journal of epidemiology · 2018Pooled it
- Effectiveness of influenza vaccines in preventing severe influenza illness among adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis of test-negative design case-control studies.The Journal of infection · 2017Pooled it
- The validity of test-negative design for assessment of typhoid conjugate vaccine protection: comparison of estimates by different study designs using data from a cluster-randomised controlled trial.The Lancet. Global health · 2025Trial
- An evaluation of a test-negative design for EV-71 vaccine from a randomized controlled trial.Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics · 2021Trial
- Trial
- Evaluation of influenza vaccine effectiveness among older adults in Jiaxing, China, 2022-2025: A test negative design-based study.Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics · 2026Article
- Dynamic epidemiological changes of hand, foot, and mouth disease and real-world effectiveness of EV-A71 vaccination: A case study in Shanghai (2009-2023).Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics · 2026Article
- Validity of influenza vaccine effectiveness calculations using a test-negative design in Thailand.American journal of epidemiology · 2026Article
- Article
- Effectiveness of Seasonal Influenza Vaccination Against Medically Attended Influenza in People With Chronic Respiratory Diseases: A Multicenter, Test-Negative, Case-control Study.Open forum infectious diseases · 2026Article
- Influenza Antibody Levels Associated with Laboratory-Confirmed Influenza in a Test-Negative Study Design, US Flu VE Network, November 2018-May 2019.medRxiv : the preprint server for health sciences · 2026Article
- Effectiveness of Influenza Vaccine in Wuhan, China During the 2024-2025 Season: A Test-Negative Case-Control Study.Vaccines · 2026Article
- Effectiveness of the 2023 Southern Hemisphere Influenza Vaccine Against Outpatient Influenza-Like Illness: A Multi-Country Test-Negative Design Study.Open forum infectious diseases · 2025Article
- Improved Methods for Vaccine Effectiveness Studies.The Journal of infectious diseases · 2025Article
- Influenza Vaccine Effectiveness in Australia During 2017-2019.Influenza and other respiratory viruses · 2025Article
- Effectiveness of 2023 southern hemisphere influenza vaccines against severe influenza-associated illness: pooled estimates from eight countries using the test-negative design.The Lancet. Global health · 2025Article
- Effectiveness of Enterovirus 71 inactivated vaccines against hand, foot, and mouth disease: A test-negative case-control study.Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics · 2024Article
- Effectiveness of influenza vaccine among the population in Chongqing, China, 2018-2022: A test negative design-based evaluation.Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics · 2024Observational
- Estimated Vaccine Effectiveness for Pediatric Patients With Severe Influenza, 2015-2020.JAMA network open · 2024Article
46 more citing papers are in PubMed but not listed here.
Corrections and comments
PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.
Authors and funding
3 authors.
Funding
Abstract
backgroundThe test-negative design is a variant of the case-control study being increasingly used to study influenza vaccine effectiveness (VE). In these studies, patients with influenza-like illness are tested for influenza. Vaccine coverage is compared between those testing positive versus those testing negative to estimate VE.
objectivesWe reviewed features in the design, analysis and reporting of 85 published test-negative studies. DATA SOURCES: Studies were identified from PubMed, reference lists and email updates. Study eligibility: All studies using the test-negative design reporting end-of-season estimates were included. STUDY APPRAISAL: Design features that may affect the validity and comparability of reported estimates were reviewed, including setting, study period, source population, case definition, exposure and outcome ascertainment and statistical model.
resultsThere was considerable variation in the analytic approach, with 68 unique statistical models identified among the studies.
conclusionHarmonization of analytic approaches may improve the potential for pooling VE estimates.
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Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.