ArticleThe American journal on addictions
The lifetime prevalence of anabolic-androgenic steroid use and dependence in Americans: current best estimates.
Article in The American journal on addictions. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 105 papers, 3 of them syntheses that pooled it.
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Who cites it
105 citing papers in PubMed, 3 syntheses or guidelines pooled it, 307 citations in OpenAlex.
- Muscle Dysmorphia Symptomatology and Associated Psychological Features in Bodybuilders and Non-Bodybuilder Resistance Trainers: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.) · 2017Pooled it
- Anabolic-androgenic steroid use and psychopathology in athletes. A systematic review.Current neuropharmacology · 2015Pooled it
- The aetiology and trajectory of anabolic-androgenic steroid use initiation: a systematic review and synthesis of qualitative research.Substance abuse treatment, prevention, and policy · 2014Pooled it
- Management of non-medical androgen use: a position statement by the Society for Endocrinology.Endocrine connections · 2026Article
- Clinical features of androgen abuse withdrawal in men during the first year of cessation: a community dwelling study.The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism · 2026Article
- Health consequences of anabolic steroids: a sexual-medicine perspective.International journal of impotence research · 2026Review
- Muscle dysmorphia in adolescents and young adults.The Lancet. Child & adolescent health · 2026Review
- Anabolic Androgenic Steroids: Emerging Use Disorder, Mechanisms of Action, and Clinical Considerations for Pharmacotherapy.Focus (American Psychiatric Publishing) · 2026Article
- Impact of Anabolic-Androgenic Steroid Abuse on the Cardiovascular System: Molecular Mechanisms and Clinical Implications.International journal of molecular sciences · 2025Review
- Bigger than sport: the enhanced games and the commodification of telehealth, testosterone, and dependency.Harm reduction journal · 2025Article
- Article
- The aporetic dialogues of Modena on gender differences: Is it all about testosterone? EPISODE I: CRIME.Andrology · 2025Review
- Testosterone replacement therapy and spermatogenesis in reproductive age men.Nature reviews. Urology · 2025Review
- Nandrolone alters the behavioral response to cocaine as well as striatal and cortical dopamine receptors of prepubertal male rats.Scientific reports · 2025Article
- Contemporary Changes in Global Trends in Early-Onset Cancer: Incidence and Mortality (2000-2021).Cancers · 2025Article
- Harm reduction measures in a recreational gym user with anabolic androgenic steroid dependence: a case report in the context of current best clinical practice.Harm reduction journal · 2025Article
- Illicit Anabolic Steroid Use and Cardiovascular Status in Men and Women.JAMA network open · 2025Article
- Psychological traits associated with anabolic androgenic steroid use and dependence: an exploratory cross-sectional study among female athletes.BMC women's health · 2025Article
- Prevalence and Correlates of Anabolic-Androgenic Steroid Use in Australian Adolescents.Nutrients · 2025Article
- Economic and equity evaluation of age restrictions on over-the-counter diet pills and muscle-building supplements.Health affairs scholar · 2025Article
45 more citing papers are in PubMed but not listed here.
Corrections and comments
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Authors and funding
6 authors at 2 institutions in 1 country.
Funding
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND
objectivesAlthough various surveys have tracked the prevalence of anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) use in American teenagers and young adults, no recent surveys have assessed the lifetime prevalence of AAS use in Americans overall. We therefore analyzed serial youth-survey data to derive estimates of the lifetime prevalence of AAS use in the current American general population.
methodsWe first determined the distribution of age of onset of AAS use, based on pooled data from nine studies. Using this distribution, we then developed equations to project the eventual lifetime prevalence of AAS use among young survey respondents, once they aged and completed the period of risk for initiating AAS. We similarly calculated the denominator of lifetimes of risk for AAS use in the total American population. We next applied these equations to four independent national youth datasets to derive current American general-population estimates for lifetime AAS use. Finally, using data from 10 pooled studies, we estimated the lifetime prevalence of AAS dependence among AAS users.
resultsAge-of-onset studies consistently showed that AAS use begins later than most drugs, with only 22% of users (95% confidence interval: 19-25%) starting before age 20. Applying the age-of-onset findings to national youth datasets, we estimated that among Americans currently age 13-50 years, 2.9-4.0 million have used AAS. Within this group, roughly 1 million may have experienced AAS dependence. CONCLUSIONS AND SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE: Although subject to various limitations, our estimation techniques suggest a surprisinigly high prevalence of AAS use and dependence among Americans.
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Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.