ArticleApplied and environmental microbiology2012
Germination and amplification of anthrax spores by soil-dwelling amoebas.
Article in Applied and environmental microbiology, 2012. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 38 papers.
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Who cites it
38 citing papers in PubMed.
- Global surveillance of anthrax outbreaks in domestic animals and humans: A retrospective secondary analysis of reported cases over two decades (2005-2024).One health (Amsterdam, Netherlands) · 2026Article
- Anthrax-causing bacteria form biofilms on a soil-inspired porous glass bead model.PLoS neglected tropical diseases · 2026Article
- Assessment of traditional biosolids disposal methods for biosolids contaminated withNext research · 2025Article
- Acanthamoeba spp.: Neglected Protists in Veterinary Medicine.Acta parasitologica · 2025Review
- New Insights into the Phylogeny of the A.Br.161 ("A.Br.Heroin") Clade ofPathogens (Basel, Switzerland) · 2024Article
- Article
- Risk factors associated with cutaneous anthrax outbreaks in humans in Bangladesh.Frontiers in public health · 2024Article
- Biological characteristics and pathogenicity ofFrontiers in microbiology · 2023Review
- Participatory mapping identifies risk areas and environmental predictors of endemic anthrax in rural Africa.Scientific reports · 2022Article
- The Fate of Bacteria of the Bacillus cereus Group in the Amoeba Environment.Microbial ecology · 2022Article
- Assessment of socio-behavioural correlates and risk perceptions regarding anthrax disease in tribal communities of Odisha, Eastern India.BMC infectious diseases · 2022Article
- Microbial warfare in the wild-the impact of protists on the evolution and virulence of bacterial pathogens.International microbiology : the official journal of the Spanish Society for Microbiology · 2021Review
- War of the microbial world: Acanthamoeba spp. interactions with microorganisms.Folia microbiologica · 2021Review
- Review
- The roles of environmental variation and parasite survival in virulence-transmission relationships.Royal Society open science · 2021Review
- A Systematic Review of Intracellular Microorganisms withinPathogens (Basel, Switzerland) · 2021Review
- Role of amoebae for survival and recovery of 'non-culturable' Helicobacter pylori cells in aquatic environments.FEMS microbiology ecology · 2020Article
- Review: The risk of contracting anthrax from spore-contaminated soil - A military medical perspective.European journal of microbiology & immunology · 2020Article
- Acanthamoeba - pathogen and vector of highly pathogenic bacteria strains to healthy and immunocompromised individuals.Central-European journal of immunology · 2020Review
- Environmental determinants influencing anthrax distribution in Queen Elizabeth Protected Area, Western Uganda.PloS one · 2020Article
Corrections and comments
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Authors and funding
3 authors.
Funding
Abstract
While anthrax is typically associated with bioterrorism, in many parts of the world the anthrax bacillus (Bacillus anthracis) is endemic in soils, where it causes sporadic disease in livestock. These soils are typically rich in organic matter and calcium that promote survival of resilient B. anthracis spores. Outbreaks of anthrax tend to occur in warm weather following rains that are believed to concentrate spores in low-lying areas where runoff collects. It has been concluded that elevated spore concentrations are not the result of vegetative growth as B. anthracis competes poorly against indigenous bacteria. Here, we test an alternative hypothesis in which amoebas, common in moist soils and pools of standing water, serve as amplifiers of B. anthracis spores by enabling germination and intracellular multiplication. Under simulated environmental conditions, we show that B. anthracis germinates and multiplies within Acanthamoeba castellanii. The growth kinetics of a fully virulent B. anthracis Ames strain (containing both the pX01 and pX02 virulence plasmids) and vaccine strain Sterne (containing only pX01) inoculated as spores in coculture with A. castellanii showed a nearly 50-fold increase in spore numbers after 72 h. In contrast, the plasmidless strain 9131 showed little growth, demonstrating that plasmid pX01 is essential for growth within A. castellanii. Electron and time-lapse fluorescence microscopy revealed that spores germinate within amoebal phagosomes, vegetative bacilli undergo multiplication, and, following demise of the amoebas, bacilli sporulate in the extracellular milieu. This analysis supports our hypothesis that amoebas contribute to the persistence and amplification of B. anthracis in natural environments.
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