ReviewNature reviews. Microbiology2009
Common strategies for antigenic variation by bacterial, fungal and protozoan pathogens.
Review in Nature reviews. Microbiology, 2009. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 195 papers.
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The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
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Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
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Who cites it
195 citing papers in PubMed.
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- Engineered Escherichia coli as a microbial cell factory for intracellular protein delivery: strains, vectors, mechanisms, and therapeutic applications.Microbial cell factories · 2026Review
- Mechanisms and Therapeutic Potential of Nutritional Immunity.Pathogens (Basel, Switzerland) · 2026Review
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- Variation in surface protein expression leads to heterogeneous Trypanosoma cruzi populations during host cell infection.Nature communications · 2025Article
- Comparative Genomic Analysis of Co-Occurring Hybrid Zones of House Mouse Parasites Pneumocystis murina and Syphacia obvelata Using Genome Polarisation.Molecular ecology · 2025Article
- Targets of the human antibody response to the variant surface glycoprotein ofbioRxiv : the preprint server for biology · 2025Article
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- Cryo-EM structure of the conjugation H-pilus reveals the cyclic nature of the TrhA pilin.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America · 2025Article
- Host-specific targets of Histomonas meleagridis antigens revealed by immunoprecipitation.Scientific reports · 2025Article
- Comparative transcriptomics reveal stage-dependent parasitic adaptations in the myxozoan Sphaerospora molnari.BMC genomics · 2025Article
- Sneaky tactics: Ingenious immune evasion mechanisms ofVirulence · 2024Review
- Pathogen contingency loci and the evolution of host specificity: Simple sequence repeats mediate Bartonella adaptation to a wild rodent host.PLoS pathogens · 2024Article
- Hyper-diverse antigenic variation and resilience to transmission-reducing intervention in falciparum malaria.Nature communications · 2024Article
- The wound microbiota: microbial mechanisms of impaired wound healing and infection.Nature reviews. Microbiology · 2024Review
135 more citing papers are in PubMed but not listed here.
Corrections and comments
PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.
Authors and funding
3 authors.
Funding
Abstract
The complex relationships between infectious organisms and their hosts often reflect the continuing struggle of the pathogen to proliferate and spread to new hosts, and the need of the infected individual to control and potentially eradicate the infecting population. This has led, in the case of mammals and the pathogens that infect them, to an 'arms race', in which the highly adapted mammalian immune system has evolved to control the proliferation of infectious organisms and the pathogens have developed correspondingly complex genetic systems to evade this immune response. We review how bacterial, protozoan and fungal pathogens from distant evolutionary lineages have evolved surprisingly similar mechanisms of antigenic variation to avoid eradication by the host immune system and can therefore maintain persistent infections and ensure their transmission to new hosts.
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Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.