ArticlePloS one2009
Origin of saxitoxin biosynthetic genes in cyanobacteria.
Article in PloS one, 2009. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 46 papers.
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Who cites it
46 citing papers in PubMed, 133 citations in OpenAlex.
- Nutrient-driven regulation of saxitoxin gene expression and toxin production in Raphidiopsis raciborskii (Cyanobacteria).Journal of phycology · 2025Article
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- Genomic Identification and Characterization of Saxitoxin Producing Cyanobacteria in Western Lake Erie Harmful Algal Blooms.Environmental science & technology · 2025Article
- Novel Toxin Biosynthetic Gene Cluster in Harmful Algal Bloom-Causing Heteroscytonema crispum: Insights into the Origins of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins.Genome biology and evolution · 2025Article
- Biosynthesis of guanidine-containing natural products in cyanobacteria.Journal of industrial microbiology & biotechnology · 2024Review
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- A Direct Analysis of β-Toxins · 2023Article
- Cyanotoxin Screening in BACA Culture Collection: Identification of New Cylindrospermopsin Producing Cyanobacteria.Toxins · 2021Article
- A Microencapsulation Method for Delivering Tetrodotoxin to Bivalves to Investigate Uptake and Accumulation.Marine drugs · 2021Article
- From theFrontiers in microbiology · 2021Article
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- Review
- Biosynthesis of Saxitoxin in Marine Dinoflagellates: An Omics Perspective.Marine drugs · 2020Review
- The Genetic Basis of Toxin Biosynthesis in Dinoflagellates.Microorganisms · 2019Review
- Comparison of Strategies to Overcome Drug Resistance: Learning from Various Kingdoms.Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) · 2018Review
- Harmful Cyanobacterial Material Production in the North Han River (South Korea): Genetic Potential and Temperature-Dependent Properties.International journal of environmental research and public health · 2018Article
- Guanidinium Toxins and Their Interactions with Voltage-Gated Sodium Ion Channels.Marine drugs · 2017Review
- Article
- Review
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Authors and funding
6 authors at 4 institutions in 2 countries.
Funding
Abstract
backgroundParalytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) is a potentially fatal syndrome associated with the consumption of shellfish that have accumulated saxitoxin (STX). STX is produced by microscopic marine dinoflagellate algae. Little is known about the origin and spread of saxitoxin genes in these under-studied eukaryotes. Fortuitously, some freshwater cyanobacteria also produce STX, providing an ideal model for studying its biosynthesis. Here we focus on saxitoxin-producing cyanobacteria and their non-toxic sisters to elucidate the origin of genes involved in the putative STX biosynthetic pathway. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL
findingsWe generated a draft genome assembly of the saxitoxin-producing (STX+) cyanobacterium Anabaena circinalis ACBU02 and searched for 26 candidate saxitoxin-genes (named sxtA to sxtZ) that were recently identified in the toxic strain Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii T3. We also generated a draft assembly of the non-toxic (STX-) sister Anabaena circinalis ACFR02 to aid the identification of saxitoxin-specific genes. Comparative phylogenomic analyses revealed that nine putative STX genes were horizontally transferred from non-cyanobacterial sources, whereas one key gene (sxtA) originated in STX+ cyanobacteria via two independent horizontal transfers followed by fusion. In total, of the 26 candidate saxitoxin-genes, 13 are of cyanobacterial provenance and are monophyletic among the STX+ taxa, four are shared amongst STX+ and STX-cyanobacteria, and the remaining nine genes are specific to STX+ cyanobacteria. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Our results provide evidence that the assembly of STX genes in ACBU02 involved multiple HGT events from different sources followed presumably by coordination of the expression of foreign and native genes in the common ancestor of STX+ cyanobacteria. The ability to produce saxitoxin was subsequently lost multiple independent times resulting in a nested relationship of STX+ and STX- strains among Anabaena circinalis strains.
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