ReviewMicrobiology and molecular biology reviews : MMBR2004
Binary bacterial toxins: biochemistry, biology, and applications of common Clostridium and Bacillus proteins.
Review in Microbiology and molecular biology reviews : MMBR, 2004. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 172 papers.
What it found
Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.
The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
The trial behind it
Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.
Who cites it
172 citing papers in PubMed, 399 citations in OpenAlex.
- A host defense role for Fibrinogen by direct binding of Clostridium botulinum C2 toxin.Cellular and molecular life sciences : CMLS · 2026Article
- Structural basis for the assembly and translocation of the Vip1-Vip2 insecticidal toxin from Bacillus thuringiensis.Nature communications · 2026Article
- From Gut to Systemic Circulation: Molecular Strategies of Botulinum Neurotoxin Complexes.Toxins · 2026Review
- Complete structures of the YenTc holotoxin prepore and pore reveal the evolutionary basis for chitinase incorporation into ABC toxins.Nature communications · 2025Article
- Anthrax Toxin: A Pioneer of Targeted Protein Toxins.Toxins · 2025Review
- Comparing microbiological and molecular diagnostic tools for the surveillance of anthrax.PLoS neglected tropical diseases · 2024Article
- Journal of veterinary diagnostic investigation : official publication of the American Association of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosticians, Inc · 2024Review
- Review
- Review
- Exploring the Toxin-Mediated Mechanisms inMicroorganisms · 2024Review
- Overview of Bacterial Protein Toxins from Pathogenic Bacteria: Mode of Action and Insights into Evolution.Toxins · 2024Review
- Repurposing FDA-approved disulfiram for targeted inhibition of diphtheria toxin and the binary protein toxins ofFrontiers in pharmacology · 2024Article
- An Updated View on the Cellular Uptake and Mode-of-Action of Clostridioides difficile Toxins.Advances in experimental medicine and biology · 2024Article
- Cellular Uptake and Cytotoxicity ofToxins · 2023Review
- Review
- Recent insights into mechanisms of cellular toxicity and cell recognition associated with the ABC family of pore-forming toxins.Biochemical Society transactions · 2023Article
- Overview of current detection methods and microRNA potential inWorld journal of gastroenterology · 2023Review
- A bacterial binary toxin system that kills both insects and aquatic crustaceans: Photorhabdus insect-related toxins A and B.PLoS pathogens · 2023Review
- Review
- Article
112 more citing papers are in PubMed but not listed here.
Corrections and comments
PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.
Authors and funding
4 authors at 3 institutions in 3 countries.
Funding
No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.
Abstract
Certain pathogenic species of Bacillus and Clostridium have developed unique methods for intoxicating cells that employ the classic enzymatic "A-B" paradigm for protein toxins. The binary toxins produced by B. anthracis, B. cereus, C. botulinum, C. difficile, C. perfringens, and C. spiroforme consist of components not physically associated in solution that are linked to various diseases in humans, animals, or insects. The "B" components are synthesized as precursors that are subsequently activated by serine-type proteases on the targeted cell surface and/or in solution. Following release of a 20-kDa N-terminal peptide, the activated "B" components form homoheptameric rings that subsequently dock with an "A" component(s) on the cell surface. By following an acidified endosomal route and translocation into the cytosol, "A" molecules disable a cell (and host organism) via disruption of the actin cytoskeleton, increasing intracellular levels of cyclic AMP, or inactivation of signaling pathways linked to mitogen-activated protein kinase kinases. Recently, B. anthracis has gleaned much notoriety as a biowarfare/bioterrorism agent, and of primary interest has been the edema and lethal toxins, their role in anthrax, as well as the development of efficacious vaccines and therapeutics targeting these virulence factors and ultimately B. anthracis. This review comprehensively surveys the literature and discusses the similarities, as well as distinct differences, between each Clostridium and Bacillus binary toxin in terms of their biochemistry, biology, genetics, structure, and applications in science and medicine. The information may foster future studies that aid novel vaccine and drug development, as well as a better understanding of a conserved intoxication process utilized by various gram-positive, spore-forming bacteria.
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Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.