ArticleProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America2003
The Trojan exosome hypothesis.
Article in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2003. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 312 papers.
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Who cites it
312 citing papers in PubMed, 630 citations in OpenAlex.
- Evaluating the utility of a nanoscale flow cytometer for detection of surface proteins on HIV and extracellular vesicles.Virology journal · 2026Article
- Variation in antiviral immunity and inflammation pathways precedes HIV-1 infection in a high-risk African cohort.The Journal of clinical investigation · 2026Article
- Exosomes in meconium mediate horizontal transmission and immune evasion of reticuloendotheliosis virus.Virology journal · 2026Article
- Immunoconjugated Magnetic Graphene for Exosome Capture in SARS-CoV-2 Pseudovirus-Infected Cells.Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) · 2026Article
- Unveiling the role of extracellular vesicles in HIV infection: molecular mechanisms, viral persistence, and therapeutic opportunities.FEMS microbiology reviews · 2026Review
- 80 years of extracellular vesicles: from discovery to clinical translation.Extracellular vesicles and circulating nucleic acids · 2026Review
- Extracellular vesicles and viruses share a nuclear entry pathway in cancer and infection.Frontiers in cell and developmental biology · 2026Article
- Extracellular vesicles in viral disease management.Current research in microbial sciences · 2026Review
- NETosis-Like Response Triggered by Extracellular Vesicle (EV)-Delivered Viral Nucleic Acid, a Novel Cellular Immune Mechanism in Crustacean.Journal of extracellular vesicles · 2025Article
- Extracellular vesicles: Antiviral functions and applications in therapeutics and vaccines.iScience · 2025Review
- Pre-formation loading of extracellular vesicles with exogenous molecules using photoporation.Journal of nanobiotechnology · 2025Article
- Extracellular membrane particles en route to the nucleus - exploring the VOR complex.Biochemical Society transactions · 2025Review
- The Potential of Extracellular Vesicle-Mediated Spread of Self-Amplifying RNA and a Way to Mitigate It.International journal of molecular sciences · 2025Article
- Review
- Changes and application prospects of biomolecular materials in small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) after flavivirus infection.European journal of medical research · 2025Review
- Harnessing the Potential of Exosomes in Therapeutic Interventions for Brain Disorders.International journal of molecular sciences · 2025Review
- Viruses and neurodegeneration: a growing concern.Journal of translational medicine · 2025Review
- Role of extracellular vesicles in the pathogenesis of mosquito-borne flaviviruses that impact public health.Journal of biomedical science · 2025Review
- The diagnostic potential of extracellular vesicles in virus-related diseases.Frontiers in cellular and infection microbiology · 2025Review
- Harnessing immunotherapeutic molecules and diagnostic biomarkers as human-derived adjuvants for MERS-CoV vaccine development.Frontiers in immunology · 2025Review
252 more citing papers are in PubMed but not listed here.
Corrections and comments
PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.
Authors and funding
3 authors at 2 institutions in 1 country.
Funding
No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.
Abstract
We propose that retroviruses exploit a cell-encoded pathway of intercellular vesicle traffic, exosome exchange, for both the biogenesis of retroviral particles and a low-efficiency but mechanistically important mode of infection. This Trojan exosome hypothesis reconciles current paradigms of retrovirus-directed transmission with the unique lipid composition of retroviral particles, the host cell proteins present in retroviral particles, the complex cell biology of retroviral release, and the ability of retroviruses to infect cells independently of Envelope protein-receptor interactions. An exosomal origin also predicts that retroviruses pose an unsolvable paradox for adaptive immune responses, that retroviral antigen vaccines are unlikely to provide prophylactic protection, and that alloimmunity is a central component of antiretroviral immunity. Finally, the Trojan exosome hypothesis has important implications for the fight against HIV and AIDS, including how to develop new antiretroviral therapies, assess the risk of retroviral infection, and generate effective antiretroviral vaccines.
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Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.